Lecture 7 - Problem solving

Question 1

What are the three aspects of problem solving?

Answer 1

1. Goal-directed (purposeful)
2. involves controlled (couscious) processing
3. lack of knowledge for immediate solution

Question 2

Define well-defined problems

Answer 2

All aspects of a problem are clearly specified

Question 3

Define ill-defined problems

Answer 3

Aspects of the problem are imprecisely specified (lack of info, context. e.g. planning a party)

Question 4

What does IGOR stand for in defining problems?

Answer 4

I - Initial state (desc of problem)
G - Goal state (end result of solved problem)
O - Operators (actions taken to achieve goal)
R - Restrictions (what/why you’re not allowed to?)

Question 5

What are knowledge-rich problems?

Answer 5

Can only be solved with relevant knowledge and expertise

Question 6

What are knowledge-lean problems?

Answer 6

Do not require knowledge; information available in the initial problem statement

Question 7

What are the two types of thinking distinguished by the Gestalt approach?

Answer 7

1. Reproductive thinking
   * Systematic re-use of prev experience to solve current problem.
2. Productive thinking
   * Novel reconstruction of a problem = have to come up w/ new ways to solve problem.

Question 8

What is insight in problem solving?

Answer 8

Involves a sudden restructuring of a problem
(Experience a sudden realisation on how to solve a problem)

Question 9

What is the effect of hints on insight problems?

Answer 9

Increase the number of solutions produced
E.g Thomas & Lleras (2009) = reach 2 strings:
* Given hints = 1. swing arms 2. stretch arms
* 1st was irrelevant but acted as an UNCONSCIOUS hint

Question 10

What is incubation in problem solving?

Answer 10

Putting the problem aside for some time
1. Subconscious mind continues to work towards solution
2. Forget prev failured strategies & adopt new approaches
E.g. Sleeping

Question 11

What is representational change theory?

Answer 11

Involves changing problem representation to facilitate insight:
1. Constraint relaxation= relax rules (widen the box of possible solutions)
2. Re-encoding = Think about it in a diff way (reinterpret aspects of the problem representation)
3. Elaboration = New info about problem is added to the representation
E.g. The Nine-dot Problem

Question 12

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 12

Mistakenly assuming an object has a limited number of uses
E.g. Dunker (1945) Candle - Tackbox problem

Question 13

What is a mental set?

Answer 13

Tendency to use a familiar problem-solving strategy that has proved successful
E.g. Luchins (1942) “water jugs”
* Prior solutions can slow down/disrupt current solutions
* They’re irrelevant so new strategies must be thought of

Question 14

Problem-solving strategies (Newell & Simon ‘72)

Answer 14

• We have a limited STM capacity & processing is typically SERIAL (unhelpful if we had large capacity so we filter useful & not useful info)
• Used knowledge-lean problem = E.g. Tower of Hanoi

Question 15

Heuristics

Answer 15

Rules-of-thumb.
Mental shortcuts — simple, fast rules your brain uses to make decisions or solve problems quickly, without needing to think through everything in detail.
Autopilot

Question 16

What is means-end analysis?

Answer 16

Breaking problems down to its initial state & goal state
1. form sub-goals to reduce difference between current & states (e.g. goal is to be a psychologist. Break goal into managebale sub-goals like completing coursework)
2. Select a mental operator (e.g. a move or moves) that permits attainment of the sub-goal

Question 17

What is a cognitive miser?

Answer 17

Someone who is economic w/ their time and effort on thinking tasks.
1. Cognitive Reflection Test = provides evidence of the extent to whoch people are cognitive misers
2. Overlap w/ use of heuristics = misers report to simplest strategy (are often incorrect)
* Unlike heuristics (turn to mental shortcuts due to limited capacity), misers are reluctant to do effortful processing despite them being able too (lazy brains). The path of least resistance.

Question 18

What are the three main types of similarity in analogical problem solving?

Answer 18

• Superficial = DETAILS are similar regardless of what the solution was.
• Structural = STRUCTURALLY, the problems are the same. Causal relationship between them (similar causes)
• Procedural = Behaviours/actions taken to come to a solution are similar.

Question 19

What did Gick & Holyoak (1980) find about analogy detection?

Answer 19

Participants solved problems better when told a relevant story

Question 20

What is expertise in problem solving?

Answer 20

Considerable specialist knowledge leading to efficient problem solving
* High lvl of thinking as a result of practice (e.g. surgeons)
* Knowledge-rich problems = knowledge beyond that contained in the problem

Question 21

Experts…Better visual memory?

Answer 21

1. Difference in performance NOT due to better visual mem.
   * Evi = When grandmasters were presented w/ positions unlikely to arise, experts were no better than novices.
   E.g. Chess players possess more chess-related info in LTM
   * Access rapidly
   * Narrow-down possible moves

Question 22

Eye-tracking & medical expertise?
Differences found between experts & novices?

Answer 22

1. Technique provides info about the focus of attention
2. > > >
   • shorter fixations
   • faster & more fixations on task-relevant info
   • longer saccades (rapid eye-movement)

Question 23

Eye-tracking evi consistent with…
1. Information-reduction hypothesis?
2. Hollistic model?

Answer 23

1. Efficient and selective allocation of attention (experts know what to fixate on depending on its relevance to the task)
2. Experts extract info from wioder area w/ each fixation (able to extract info quicker than a novice)

Question 24

What is plasticity in the context of expertise?

Answer 24

Changes in brain structure/function related to experience (brain adapts depending on environment
* E.g. London Taxi Drivers - “The Knowledge” = more grey matter in posterior hippocampus (memory)

Question 25

Deliberate Practice? What are the four aspects of deliberate practice?

Answer 25

1. **Prolonged deliberate practise over many years to become an expert** * Appropriate level of difficulty * Feedback * Repeat task * Correct errors Reduces neg effects of limited mem capacity = rapid transfer of info from LTM