What is Rationalism?
Belief that humans are rational creatures, capable of reason and logic. Means an individual can define their own best interests and make moral choices, creating a progressive society
What is a Liberal Democracy?
Democracy that balances the will of the people (elections), with limited government and respect for civil liberties in society
What is Classical Liberalism?
Early liberals believing individual freedom is best achieved with a minimal state role
What is Modern Liberalism?
Emerged as reaction to free market capitalism, leading to many individuals not being free. Freedom no longer defined as ‘being left alone’
What are Liberal Core Values? (JEEP LLTG)
Justice
Equal Rights
Equality of Opportunity
Pluralism
Limited government and Constitutionalism
Liberty/Freedom
Tolerance
Government by consent
What is the Liberal core value of Justice?
Support legal justice- law is applied equally to all citizens and it conforms to the notion of equal rights.
Traditionally suspicious of social justice and intervention. Late 19th-century liberals supported the implementation of equality of opportunity, but recently accept inequality is natural and all social outcomes are “just” in a free society.
Why is social justice controversial amongst Liberals?
William Beveridge and other contemporary liberals argue that deprivation curtails freedom and thus the inequality that comes from the free market is not just. Many liberals share a desire to redistribute wealth, i.e. John Rawls suggesting the state is justified in intervening in this situation.
Due to the conflicts between different factions of liberalism it is much more controversial to suggest that social justice is a core liberal value.
What is the Liberal Core value of Equal Rights?
- Everyone has the same rights granted to them by God or nature, therefore must enjoy equal rights courtesy of the state
- Doesn’t equal belief in equality: people have different abilities and potentials from birth, so instead seek right to equal opportunity to reach full potential and seek self-fulfilment
ALL distinct groups in society are entitled to the same rights + everyone is entitled to equality of opportunity
What is the Liberal core value of Equality of Opportunity?
Recognises that individuals are born with disadvantages that cannot be overcome by their own efforts
- Equal rights and individual liberties cannot work in an 'equal' way without equality of opportunity - Examples-> elementary education, entry into the professions (law, government and the army etc) were opened to a wider spectrum of society - Creation of welfare state by William Beveridge - Eventually a principle of Labour as well, but originated from the Liberals
What is the Liberal core value of Pluralism?
- Pluralism refers to a modern conception of a “truly” liberal society. Alexis de Tocqueville characterised it as a flourishing collection of groups to which people owed allegiance and could freely participate in. This prevents the state from becoming too powerful.
- Europe in particular has adopted a lot of pluralist democratic traditions, including multiculturalism, toleration of wide-ranging opinions and the freedom to participate in policy-making.
- For liberals, a pluralist society enhances freedom and opportunity whilst controlling the powers of the state.
What is the Liberal core value of Limited government and Constitutionalism?
- Government by consent is not satisfactory alone; the powers of government must be controlled by a set of rules to stop them from encroaching upon the lives of its citizens.
- A constitution (i.e. the rules that should control government) can help prevent the exercise of arbitrary power, power from becoming too concentrated in one persons hands, and stopping tyranny of the majority from undermining legitimacy of decisions.
Sovereignty, limits to the jurisdiction of government, rights of citizens and institutions such as the judiciary and methods on how to amend the constitution are all features of a typical constitution.
- A constitution (i.e. the rules that should control government) can help prevent the exercise of arbitrary power, power from becoming too concentrated in one persons hands, and stopping tyranny of the majority from undermining legitimacy of decisions.
What is the Liberal Core value of Liberty/Freedom?
Political freedom= freedom of a people to determine their own form of government and not be ruled by any external power, known as self-determination ie many 19th century independence campaigns-> German and Italian nationalist movements
Enemies of liberty= overpowering governments, too paternalistic + government regulated individual behavior without just cause
Utilitarian tradition of Liberalism- each individual is the best judge for their own interest, being able to make our own decisions for what we wish to pursue and what we wish to avoid is the essence of freedom
- Role of govt shouldn’t be to make personal decisions for us, or prevent from following self interest unless it prevents others from pursuing theirs
- Coexists well with free market capitalism
Some see society as good, people are interdependent as well as independent- self fulfilment comes from pursuing self interest and the overall good/interest of others
Widest possible degree of choice and opportunity for everyone-> exercise a sense of responsibility by pursuing the common good as freedom is not one dimensional
What is Negative vs Positive Liberty?
Negative liberty- absence of external restraint, Freedom from interference by other people (freedom to do as you please, within reason)
- Associated with ‘classical liberalism’
- Reinforces self reliant individualism, limited state and laissez faire economics
Positive liberty- helped by government to achieve things
- Freedom to realise personal potential (ie freedom from barriers to ‘self actualisation’)
Associated with ‘modern liberalism’, involving the state in realising full potential.
- Negative freedom undermined liberty
- Beveridge ‘ a starving man is not free’
What is the Liberal core value of Tolerance?
Tolerating other people’s beliefs, values, thoughts, faiths, right to express themselves openly-> goal of liberalism
- 20th century: tolerance of minorities, defending rights of gay people, ethnic and religious groups, oppose censorship in the media and arts
- Limits to tolerance: Threats to the security of the state or freedom of individuals, crime, act violently or discriminate others-> then freedom of expression will be limited
- Understanding that people are influenced by their social or economic backgrounds, therefore could be more drawn to anti social behaviour -> Liberals tolerant of their circumstance and propose measures to assist reform in behaviour, not pure punishment
- Tolerant to personal morality issues (ie abortion, homosexuality etc), believing its personal matters, not the concern of the state or society
What is the Liberal core value of Government by Consent?
- In the wake of the enlightenment, the concept of the Divine Right of Kings was brought into question, and the search for a more legitimate form of government began.
- Hobbes and Locke developed the concept of government by consent; Hobbes suggested that people come together to set up an agreement about where power would lie, thus providing peace and security. Locke went as far as to saying this agreement would have to be real and not notional, as well as constantly confirmed (i.e. through elections).
- This was the model for the US Constitution in 1787.
- Some argue that the confirmation proposed by Locke must be more than elections, and take the public opinion through a referendum on major changes to the constitution or other policy.
- Gibraltar, the Falklands and Northern Ireland have all voted “yes” to plebiscites asking if they want to remain under UK rule; this has satisfied liberals.
What is Orange book Liberalism?
Orange book= recent book, more modern take on classic liberal ideas
What are Classical liberal views on the State?
Classical liberals see the state as interfering and infringing on freedom BUT is a necessary evil to maintain public order and mange competing individual self interest
- See it as a ‘night watchman state’
- Thomas Paine ‘the government is best which governs least’
Supporters of free market economics with limited government intervention
What are Modern Liberal views on the state?
Modern liberals saw the damaging social consequences of industrialisation, felt the state should proactively enhance life opportunities for the majority, taking on an ‘enabling’ role
Modern welfare liberalism (Keynes and Beveridge), introducing the welfare state and state directed economic management to enhance freedom and fullfil personal potential
What are Classical Liberal views on Human Nature?
Classical liberals felt individuals are self reliant and seeking, taking an atomistic view of human nature, instinctively drawn to pursue egotistical self interest. The state tend to get in the way of this
What are Modern Liberal views on human nature?
Modern liberals see humans as more sociable than selfish, wanting to achieve goals in a more collective manner
What was in John Locke’s ‘2 Treatises of Government’ 1690?
- Established freedom as essence of liberalism through doctrine of ‘natural rights ‘ and ‘natural laws’, All people are equal in rights and must respect each other’s rights
- Natural rights-> rights to life, liberty and property
- Some government is necessary to avoid Hobbes’ ‘state of nature’ (people do not respect one another’s right) however, government derives its authority from the people and should govern in accordance with natural rights
- Government should therefore be limited and (like the people it serves) subject to the rule of law ie both parties enter into a ‘social contract’
- “the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to enlarge freedom…Where there is no law, there is no freedom” (the role of government, meaning of freedom to liberals)
NEGATIVE FREEDOM DOMINANT
What was was in J.S Mill’s ‘On Liberty’ 1859?
J.S Mill’s ‘On Liberty’ put forward idea of negative freedom, arguing individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions potentially affect others, not when their actions affect only themselves.
- Became ideological cornerstone of ‘classical liberalism’ and Laissez faire government, dominated Victorian Britain
What was William Gladstone’s role in Liberalism (1868-94)?
William Gladstone (Liberal politician) served 4 separate terms as PM + came to embody classical liberalism/ ‘Gladstonian Liberalism’
- Rugged individualism (everyone works for their own self interest, will rise to the top if work hard enough), meritocracy (society based on achievements and hard work), free trade and laissez faire economic policies
NEGATIVE FREEDOM DOMINANT
What was T.S Green’s role in Liberalism? (1836-82)
1890s onward- POSITIVE FREEDOM DOMINANT, reacting against the inequalities caused by Gladstonian Liberalism
- Father of positive freedom
- Argued Mill’s concept of liberty was too limited and saw society as an ‘organic whole’
- ‘New Liberalism’ stressed Victorian society were trapped by poverty and other barriers to self fulfilment
- Some limited state intervention would be needed to free people from these barriers
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Democracy Key Terms53
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Democracy and Political Participation103
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Constitution Key Terms29
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Constitution67
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Devolution149
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Rights33
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Political History 1979-202477
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Parliament Key Words14
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Parliament205
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Executive Key Terms6
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Executive210
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Prime Ministers49
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Political Parties222
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Political Parties Key Terms46
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Judiciary and relations between Branches248
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Judiciary and relations between Branches Key Terms2
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Conservatism197
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Conservatism Key Terms35
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Voting Behaviour and the Media Key Terms13
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Voting Behaviour and the Media156
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Electoral Systems0
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Electoral systems key terms0
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Liberalism48
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US SC- Racial Equality2
