What is Ideology?
- A set of shared beliefs, values, and assumptions that shape how people view the world.
- Often appear as “normal” or “common sense.”
- Language can both reflect and reproduce ideologies.
- Ex. Religion has a set of shared beliefs and values that shape how people think and live.
What do we mean when we say, “Language can both reflect and reproduce ideologies?”
- Reflect = mirrors beliefs (Ex. Saying “fireman” instead of “firefighter” reflects a belief that the job is male).
- Reproduce = keeps beliefs alive through repeated use (If everyone keeps saying “fireman,” the idea that it’s a man’s job gets reinforced — the language reproduces that ideology).
What is Hegemony?
- A form of power maintained through consent, not force.
- Dominant groups make their worldview appear normal or inevitable.
- Language helps maintain this dominance (ex. media and institutions)
What is Normalizing Power?
- The process of making certain behaviors, beliefs, and language uses appear normal or standard.
- Ex. Standard English being reflected as “correct” or “proper.”
- Power is jointly produced: we all participate in it.
What is Discourse?
- Systems of language that use structure knowledge, beliefs, and power.
- Example: Medical vs. Legal Discourse
- Not just speech - also includes patterns, meanings, and social effects.
- Reflects and shapes ideologies and powers.
What is Competence vs Performance?
- The knowledge of shared grammar (building codes).
- The actual use of grammar in communication.
- You can still have good grammar knowledge but still make errors in performance.
What are the Two Kinds of Language (Saussure)?
- Langue: The overall system of language that everyone in a community knows, like the right use of vocabulary and grammar.
- Parole: The individual use of language, how people speak on a daily basis with friends for instance (ex. I’ll do it tmrw).
What is Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar?
- How language should be used.
- How language is actually used.
What is Saussure’s Model of the Sign?
- Sign: Unit of meaning (ex. symbol, image, or word).
- Signifier: The sound pattern (what we hear).
- Signified: The concept that sound makes us think of.
What are the Conditions for Sign?
- A signifier must require at least one signified.
- If no concept is attached, the sound is just noise, not a sign.
What are the 2 Language Changes?
- Synchronic: The study of language at one point in time (Ex. Canadian vs American English in terms of spelling words like “colour”).
- Diachronic: The study of language over time (evolution) (Ex. “girl” in the 14th century = a child of either sex, whereas now it refers to a female child).
What is Linguistic Determinism (Strong Version) and Linguistic Relativism (Weak Version)?
- Language determines thought - if a concept doesn’t exist in your language, you can’t think it (Ex. Newspeak of Orwell’s 1984 - government restricts vocabulary to control thought and behavior).
- Language influences thought, it doesn’t fully determine it (Ex. Whorf’s Oil Drum Case - drums labelled as “empty” encouraged risky behavior, even though they contained explosive vapors.
What is Semantic Presuppositions?
- An assumption that comes directly from the meanings of the words in a sentence.
- Often hidden as it seems normal or obvious; It stays true even if the sentence is negated.
- Ex. John stopped smoking - implies the assumption that John used to smoke and even if the sentence is negated, assumption remains the same: John did not stop smoking.
What is Pragmatic Presuppositions?
- An assumption that requires contextual or cultural knowledge to understand it; it is not directly stated within the text.
- Often unnoticed unless context is unfamiliar or surprising.
- Negating the sentence would not work as it would change or remove the presuppositions.
- Ex. “Even Mary passed the test” - which means that it wasn’t expected that Mary would pass and that would only be understood if you were familiar with the context).
What is Foregrounding?
- Making certain features stand out through sound, repetition, or structure.
- Commonly used in poetry or adds to draw attention.
What is Parallelism?
The repetition of structure or pattern for emphasis or rhythm.
- Ex. Easy come, easy go.
What is Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics?
- The order (or structure) of words in a sentence.
- The study of meaning in words and sentences.
- The study of meaning in context - what people intend or imply.
What is the Study of Geosemiotics?
The study of how a sign’s meaning depends on its physical and social location; where it is placed depends on how people interpret it.
- Ex. A “No Smoking” sign placed in a hospital matches its meaning, whereas a stop sign placed in a room, the physical and social location no longer matches its meaning.
What are Linguistic Landscapes?
The visual use of language in public spaces (Ex. signs, billboards, graffiti).
Expanding on Linguistic Landscapes, what are the Different Types of Landscapes?
- Regulatory/Infrastructural: Official signs (traffic, public instructions).
- Commercial: Advertising or business signage.
- Transgressive: Graffiti or signs that challenge norms or laws.
- Top-down: Government or institutional sources (e.g., street signs).
- Bottom-up: Individuals or local businesses (e.g., shop signs, stickers).
What is a Metaphor?
- Describing one concept in terms of another to create meaning.
- Example: “Time is money.”
- Often used in persuasion (politics, advertising).
What are the 4 Main Linguistic/Societal Ideologies?
- Bilingual/Multilingual → multiple languages included (Ex. A public transit sign that shows “Stop” in English and French)
- Equality/Accessibility → everyone can understand (A hospital sign that says “Emergency” multiple languages to provide access to important info regardless of language).
- Cultural identity → reflects pride in a culture or group (York banner not only reflecting National language, yet Indigenous language).
- Official/National language → emphasizes one standard language (Ex. A legal document published in English as it is the official language for legal communication in that region).
