1
Q
LC
A
- LC is emerging as an important separation technique in forensic toxicology and analysis of drugs
- Complements GC
- Need to know how to optimise separations
2
Q
High performance liquid chromatography
A
- Stationary phase – solid
Contained in a column of fixed dimensions - Mobile phase – liquid
Pumped through the system at high pressure at a fixed flow rate
3
Q
what is LC
A
- Separate non-volatile organic compounds
- Analyte in liquid solution
- Suitable for thermally labile, polar compounds
4
Q
how big are the columns
A
- short (5-30 cm)
5
Q
what does the mobile phase consist of
A
- phase often a combination of water and organic solvent
6
Q
what is separation based on
A
polarity, electrical charge and molecular size
7
Q
organic molecules are sorted into classes
A
- according to the principal functional groups each contains
8
Q
for polarity
A
- the chromatographic retention of different kinds of molecules if largely determined by the nature and location of these functional groups
look at ppt
9
Q
stationary phase- normal phase HPLC
A
– Based on polar silica (SiO2) – stationary phase
– Uses non-polar or less polar mobile phase
– Robust – can stand high P
– Microspheres ~3 – 10 μm
– Packed in stainless steel columns
– Less polar compounds eluted before polar ones
10
Q
drawback of normal phase
A
very polar solvents bond to silica makes column useless
11
Q
Reverse-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) – most common
A
– Silica has been functionalised
– Long chain hydrocarbon bonded to silica
– C-8 or C-18 chains
– Later known as ‘octodecylsilyl’ or ODS
– Make stationary phase non-polar
– Can use mobile phases with a range of polarities
– More polar compounds eluted before less polar ones
– Can be used with a variety of compound types
– Separation depends on mobile phase composition
12
Q
RP-HPLC
A
look on ppt at graph
13
Q
mobile phase commonest solvents are
A
– Water - polar
– Methanol - polar
– Acetonitrile - moderately polar
– Tetrahydrofuran (THF) – moderately polar
14
Q
generally mobile phases are made up of mixtures of solvents of
A
- different polarities
– Water with acetonitrile or THF or methanol
15
Q
mixtures in mobile phase remain
A
- constant – isocratic
16
Q
composition can change over time- gradient
A
- In RP-HPLC start with a less polar mix and move towards a more polar mix
- Mix may include a pH buffer (instead of water)
- Will ionise or un-ionise compounds depending on nature
17
Q
Where are the reverse phase solvents are by convention installed where
A
- the HPLC channels A and B
18
Q
‘A’ solvent
A
- the aqueous solvent (water or a buffer)
- generally HPLC grade water
19
Q
‘B’ solvent
A
- the organic solvent (acetonitrile, methanol, THF).
- generally an HPLC grade organic solvent such as acetonitrile or methanol.
- Sometimes acid (0.1%) is used in each to the improve the chromatographic peak shape
20
Q
what is more polar
A
mobile phase is more polar than stationary
mobile phase can have a range of polarities
21
Q
stationary phase
A
hydrophobic group chemically bonded to silica
22
Q
the two phases
A
- Analyte ‘partitions’ between the two phases depending upon its chemistry (hydrophobicity)
- Increasing the % organic in the mobile phase increases the ‘elution power’ of the mobile phase
- Retention and Selectivity are altered by changing the chemistry of the stationary phase, mobile phase and the temperature
- Most analytes tests are likely to have a weak polarity
23
Q
increase the polarity of the MP (water)
A
- this will increasingly repel the hydrophobic (non-polar) sections of the analyte molecules into the stationary phase
- Be retained longer.
24
Q
decrease the polarity of the MP (acetonitrile)
A
- this will increasingly repel the hydrophilic (polar) sections of the analyte molecules into the stationary phase
- the weak polar analytes will elute faster
25
pros
- Acetonitrile has lower viscosity - reduces back pressure and often results in slightly better peak shape
- Acetonitrile has lower UV cut-off - advantage for UV detection
- Methanol is less expensive and less toxic
- Methanol is more polar - reducing the risks of solid buffer precipitation
26
elution order
- The less water soluble a sample is, the more retention
27
retention time increases as
- the number of carbon atoms increases
28
what elutes more rapidly
- Branched-chain compounds elute more rapidly than straight-chain compounds (isomers) e.g. C4H10
29
unsaturation decreases
retention
30
in RP-LC
- more polar compounds eluted before less polar ones
31
trial and error
- Carry out separation at high %A (80%)
- This saves time vs. starting at low A
- Reduce by 5-10% A in steps to assess retention – make mobile phase less polar
- Really only works for neutral compounds
- Ionisable species need to employ pH control – a buffer as A
32
controlling ionisation
- Charged (ionised) compounds are more hydrophilic so more polar than when non-charged
- Need to know the pKa of a compound and pH of the mobile phase
- Adjust pH so that you get a stronger or weaker retention
33
the 2pH rule
look on ppt
34
In a RP-LC separation which of the following compounds elute first and last?
- Polar compounds will come out first because the stationary phase is non polar
1) (first) benzoic acid
2) phenol benzene
3) benzene
4) (last) methyl benzene (has an aliphatic chain so makes it more non polar)
look at ppt
35
HPLC instrument
look at ppt for diagram
36
HPLC injector
look at ppt
37
injector
heavy duty valve with internal tubing that allows free flow of
mobile phase at all times but operates in two modes
38
LOAD
where mobile phase flows directly onto column BUT allows sample
loop to be filled from external syringe (loop, 20 – 100 μL)
39
INJECT
directs flow through sample loop and pushes sample onto column.
40
calibration graphs
look at ppt
41
detectors
- Sensitive, stable, appropriate to compounds
| - Detect and measure change in a parameter – converts to electrical signal
42
most common type of detector
UV
Only useful for compounds that absorb in the UV
43
Other detectors
- Refractive index
| - conductivity
44
UV/Vis detections
- Foundation for UV/Vis spectroscopy was laid in mid-1800s
- Lambert-Beer’s Law
- Concentration of analyte is proportional to the intensity of transmitted light – detected by a photodiode
45
Lamber- Beer's Law
Concentration of analyte is proportional to the intensity of transmitted light – detected by a photodiode
46
Lamber- Beer's Law equation
look at power point
```
A= e b c
A = absorbance
e= molar extinction coefficient
b= path length (1cm)
c= concentration
```
47
UV detector
- Single beam UV spectrometer
48
range of UV detector
- 190 – 400 nm (deuterium lamp)
49
Cons of UV detector
- Only works with solvents that absorb UV
- Usually only works at one wavelength
- Problem when compounds have different λmax
50
alternatives to UV detector
- Dual wavelength
| - Diode array – scans over wavelength range very rapidly
51
Photodiode Array Detector (DAD)
- Operates over a bigger wavelength range 190-600nm
- Allows the acquisition of the entire spectra passed through
- Spectra is a 3D plot of response vs time vs wavelength
52
refractive index detector
- For compound with no UV abs. (sugars,
polymers) .
- Detects changes in RI when compound passes through. Very sensitive.
53
Drawbacks of refractive index detector
- Extremely temp. sensitive – needs a controlled environment
- Sensitive to changes in mobile phase
- Cannot be used with a gradient mobile phase
- Sensitive to turbulence – needs a stable flow rate.
54
conductimetric detector
- Used for detecting ions
| - Ion chromatography – a special type of HPLC
55
what does conductimetric detector measure
change in an electrical current as ions pass through
- Response is proportional to ion concentration
- Can’t tell which ion – that needs standards
56
cons of conductimetric detector
- Can’t tell which ion – that needs standards
57
data collection
- Either an integrator or computer program
Takes signal, produces chromatogram and reports;
- Retention time
- peak area
- Peak height
- % areas
58
GC and LC
GC
- samples analysed by GC must be volatile and thermally stable
- derivatization to increase analyse volatility is possible but cumbersome and introduces possible quantitative errors
- most GC analyses are under 500 Da molecular weight for volatility purposes
- resolution unparalleled (capillary columns)
- simple and inexpensive equipment
- rapid
LC
- HPLC analysis has no volatility issues, however the analyse must be soluble in the mobile phase
- HPLC can analyse samples over a wider range of polarity and is able to analyse ionic samples
- HPLC has no real upper molecular weight limit and large proteins of many thousands of Daltons may be analysed
- thermally unstable compounds
- macromolecules
- more complex interface to MS
- applicable for inorganic ions
59
BOTH GC AND LC
- efficient
- selective
- small sample size
- can be non destructive
- easy to adapt to quantitative analysis
Analytical Chemistry
flashcards
Decks in class (20)
# Cards
-
Forensic Toxicology22
-
Analytical Chemistry13
-
Sample collection, storage and preparation41
-
Gas Chromatography34
-
NMR12
-
Atomic Spectrsocopy9
-
Flame photometry or atomic emission spectroscopy (AES)3
-
Atomic absorption spectroscopy AAS8
-
Interferences in atomic spectroscopy7
-
inductively coupled plasma ICP21
-
Sample Digestion11
-
application examples of ICP-MS and ICP-OES5
-
NMR26
-
Liquid chromatography59
-
ANALYTICAL SELECTIVITY AND SENSITIVITY, ASSAY QUALITY CONTROL, AND STATISTICAL COMPUTATIONS27
-
Forensic IR Spectroscopy50
-
NMR 210
-
basics to radioactivity23
-
radioactive decay27
-
radiocarbon dating40
