Texas Sharpshooter
Cherry-picking similarities in data while ignoring differences to make a pattern appear meaningful
- Only noting neighborhoods with high cancer rates near power lines and claiming power lines cause cancer, while ignoring areas without cancer clusters.
Strawman
Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack
- “She wants better public transit.” → “She wants to ban all cars.”
No True Scotman
Dismissing counterexamples by redefining the group to exclude them
Gambler’s / Hot Hand
Believing random independent events are influenced by past outcomes (Gambler’s) or that a streak will continue (Hot Hand)
- “He made 5 shots in a row, so he’ll make the next.”
Burden of Proof
Shifting responsibility to disprove a claim onto others rather than supporting one’s own claim
- “Prove ghosts don’t exist.”
Loaded Question
Asking a question that presupposes a controversial assumption
- “Have you stopped cheating?”
The Fallacy Fallacy
Assuming a claim is false simply because it contains a fallacy
- “That argument has a fallacy, so the conclusion must be false.”
Appeal to Emotion
Manipulating emotions to win an argument rather than using relevant facts
- “Vote for me or your family will suffer.”
Appeal to Authority
Arguing something must be true because an authority says so (without other evidence)
- “The celebrity says this diet works, so it must.”
Begging the Question
Assuming the conclusion within the premises
- “Wool sweaters are better because they’re superior.”
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person rather than their argument
- “Don’t listen — he’s an idiot.”
- “She’s wrong because she’s biased.”
False Cause
Assuming that because one event followed another, it caused it
- “I sneezed and the power went out; my sneeze caused it.”
Slippery Slope
Arguing that one step will inevitably lead to extreme consequences without evidence
- “If we allow x, soon freedom is gone.”
- “Allow video games → society collapses.”
Bandwagon
Claiming something is true because many people believe it
- “Everyone’s using this phone, so it’s the best.”
- “Most people believe x, so x must be true.”
Tu Quoque
Avoiding criticism by pointing out hypocrisy in the critic
- “You smoke, so your argument about health is invalid.”
Anecdotal
Using personal experience instead of sound evidence
- “My friend never wore sunscreen and is fine, sunscreen is pointless.”
Composition / Division
Assuming what’s true of a part (or whole) must be true of the whole (or parts)
- “Each player is great → the team must be great.”
- “The cake is heavy → each ingredient is heavy.”
Appeal to Nature
Arguing that because something is natural, it’s good/valid
- “Herbal medicine is good because it’s natural.”
- “Organic is better because it’s natural.”
Genetic
Judging an idea based on its origin rather than its merit
- “Product x is bad because Company y made it.”
- “He can’t be good because he comes from Nazareth”
Special Pleading
Applying standards to others that are not applied to oneself without justification
- “I know cheating on a test is wrong, but I had to do it because I didn’t have time to study.”
Personal Incredulity
Rejecting a claim because one finds it hard to understand
- “I don’t get quantum physics, so it’s nonsense.”
Middle Ground
Assuming the compromise between two extremes must be true
- “One says A, one says B → truth is between A & B.”
Ambiguity
Using vague or double meanings to mislead
- “Cutting taxes” without specifying which taxes.
Black or White
Presenting only two options when more exist
- “You’re either with us or against us.”
- “Either we ban cars or pollution wins.”
