1
Q
Describe the concentration difference of Ca2+ across the plant cell
A
- Lower conc (nM) in the cytoplasm
- Higher conc (mM) in the apoplast, vacuole and ER
- Self regulation of Ca2+ concentrations occur in each organelle
2
Q
What are the different ways to measure [Ca2+]? (4)
A
- Luminescence Indicators (Aequorin)
- Electrode (patch clamp)
- Chemical fluorescent Calcium Dyes (Fura-2)
- Genetically Encoded Calcium Indicators (CAMELEONs, GCaMP)
3
Q
Describe the function of aequorin as a Ca2+ indicator
A
- Apoaequorin transformed into cells
- Binds to coeleterazine to become the active form aequorin
- Can bind up to 3 x Ca2+ in the EF hands
- Binding leads to oxidation reaction emitting blue light
= Intensity is proportional to the conc of Ca2+
4
Q
What are the positives and negatives of using aequorin?
A
Positives
- Non-invasive
- Wide calcium detection range
- Quantitative measure
- Low background signal
- Low phototoxicity, doesn’t require external excitation
Negatives
- Irreversible (use once)
- Lower sensititivity
5
Q
What are the adv and disadvantages of using electrophysiology to measure [Ca2+]?
A
Adv
- Direct measurements of Ca currents are taken as channels are being measured
Disadv
- Difficult to accurately place the electrodes in the cell
- Takes time to reach resting potentials
- Invasive and disruptive
6
Q
Describe the function of Ca2+ indicators
A
- Derived from Ca2+ chelators that bind to Ca2+
- Can be chemical (Fura-2) or genetically encoded (GCaMP, GFP, CAMELEONs)
- Upon binding to Ca2+ the structures undergo an optical change and emit different fluorescence
7
Q
What are advantages and disadvantages of calcium indicators?
A
Adv
- Real time monitoring
- High sensitivity
- Non- invasive
- Versatile
Disadvantages
- Phototoxicity + Photobleaching
- Background noise
- Interference with functions e.g. high conc of Ca2+ buffer will reduce signal strength etc.
8
Q
Compare Calcium Green and Fura-2
A
- Number of peaks formed
Calcium green (1), Fura-2 (2) - Measurements
Fura-2 requires rapid flipping between two filters to measure intensity then carry out a ratio metric analysis = MORE ACCURATE/ QUANTITATIVE
Calcium green fluorescence levels is then directly used to analyse concentrations = QUALITATIVE
9
Q
Describe the structure and function of CAMELEONs
A
CFP - cyan fluorescent protein
YFP - yellow fluorescent protein
CaM - calmodulin (binds to Ca2+)
M13 - peptide that binds to CaM in the presence of Ca2+
- Presence of calcium leads to binding of CaM and M13, bringing YFP closer to CFP leading to different wavelengths being released. Instead of cyan it is yellow
10
Q
Describe the structure and function of GCaMP
A
- GFP-based calcium indicator
- enhanced GFP (eGFP) encoded backwards
- CaM and M13 present
In the presence of Ca2+ M13 binds to CaM causing circular permutation in the gene structure and allows for coding of EGFP, which then emits fluorescence - Not ratiometric, however, lack of fluorescence indicates lack of Ca2+
11
Q
What are the 6 different plant hormones and their roles?
A
Auxin - cell elongation, apical dominance
Gibberellins - stem elongation
Cytokinins - cell division (Active form as tZR), leaf senescence
Brassinosteroids - cell elongation and division
ABA - stress response
Strigolactones - microbial signalling
12
Q
What is cross-talk?
A
Overlap between two different signals, that converge at a node and generate an integrated response
13
Q
What is the meaning of ectopic expression?
A
Expression of a gene where it isn’t normally found e.g. not in roots or shoots
Or expression in a different species
- Used to show similarities and function of the gene
14
Q
What are the characteristics of signalling networks?
A
- Appropriately sensitive to the stimulus
- Specific to stimulus
- Propagating signal
- Robust
- Refractory (switch on and off)
15
Q
How do proteins transfer information?
A
- Conformational change
- change in shape leads to downstream signalling e.g. kinases - Covalent modification
- Transfer of functional group e.g. phosphate via kinases and phosphatases
16
Q
What are the characteristics of the components (receptors etc.) in the signalling pathway?
A
- Position
- Sensitivity (Kd)
- Specificity
- Capacity to relay
- Timing
17
Q
Give an example of cross-talk and sharing of co-factors
A
- FLS2 shares the co-factor BAK1, with BRI1
- Involved with brassinosteroid signalling
- Epidermal kymograph shows lack of clustering, even though they have the same co-factor
18
Q
What is the scaffold hypothesis?
A
- Tether signalling components from various pathways
- Co-ordinates +ve and -ve feedback signals
- Insulating correct signalling proteins preventing inactivation
e.g. FERONIA that brings FLS2 and EFR to meet BAK1, in response to flg22 (Stegmann et al., 2017)
19
Q
Give examples of positive and negative feedback loops with FLS2
A
Positive
- flg22 binds and activates FLS2 which activates WRKY22/29 to activate their own production
- FLS2 initiates MAPK pathway, increasing SA which enhances expression of FLS2
Negative
- Activation of negative regulatoes, targeting FLS2 for ubiquitination leading to endocytosis. Preventing excessive energy expediture or autoimmunity
- Or ABA increasing NO production which then deactivate ABA receptors
20
Q
What are the causes for [Ca2+] cyt increase?
A
- Abiotic stress
- Biotic stress
- Symbiotic signals
- Hormones
- Signalling intermediates (ROS, NO, cAMP)
21
Q
What experiments can be done to find out where Ca2+ is derived from?
A
- Blocking channels
- Lanthanum ions, similar radius to Ca2+ can bind and block - Chelating Ca2+
- EGTA to Ca2+ to prevent movement - Calcium channel mutants
- knock out CNGCs (mutation in CNGC11/12 activates defence responses) or TPC1 (high extracellular [Ca2+] led to stomatal closure in WT and overexpressor, but the tpc1 mutant was unresponsive. (Peiter et al., 2005))
22
Q
How can specificity be generated in Ca2+ signals?
A
- Cell specific promoters/ transporters
- Monophasic/Biphasic/ Oscillatory signals
- Amplitude of the signal
- Duration and frequency
23
Q
What Ca2+ changes occur in chloroplasts?
A
- Thylakoids a greater store of Ca2+ compared to the stroma
- Changes in Ca2+ in response to light (circadian) controlling photosynthesis
– Aequorin based experiment showed that stroma Ca2+ responds differently to same stress
24
Q
What evidence is there that nuclear Ca2+ changes differ to cytosolic Ca2+ changes?
A
Addition of oomycete PAMP (cryptogein) leads to slower increase in Ca2+ in nucleus, compared to the cytosol
- Nuclear Ca2+ oscillations can occur independent of cytosolic oscillations, indicating distinction between the two
- Another reasoning for differences, is that the nucleus Ca2+ changes have an effect on gene expression, while cytosolic changes have an effect on ion movements
25
How can Ca2+ channels be discovered?
1. Patch clamp electrophysiology
- Discovery of TPC1
2. Planar lipid bilayers
- vesicles bind to artificial membrane and measure changes
3. Genomics looking at homology
- Discovery of GLRs and CNGCs
4. Genomics looking at mutant screens
26
What does TPC1 encode?
Slow vacuolar channel
- Activated by increasing [Ca2+] in cytosol. Patch clamping saw no change in voltage in mutants
- 2 pore regions, forms a dimer
- Voltage gated, activated after TPK1
- Located on the vacuole, from GFP in protoplasts
- High extracellular [Ca2+] in guard cells, shows greater stomatal closure in WT and overexpressors, however, tpc1 mutant is unresponsive (Peiter et al., 2005)
27
Name 2 types of Ca2+ channels?
1. Glutamate Receptor-like family (GLRs)
- 1 pore region, suggests tetramer formation
- Encoded in the nucleus, but expressed in the thylakoid and mitochondria
- Bind to a range of amino acids
2. Cyclic Nucleotide Gated Channels (CNGCs)
- Subunits only contain 1 pore region, suggests tetramer formation
- Found on various membranes, leads to greater diversity
- Mutation in CNGC11/12 activates defence response and enhanced resistance (McAinsh and Pitman, 2009)
28
What are 2 types of mechanosensitive channels?
1. Mid1 Complementing Activity (MCA1)
- No pore region present
- Mutants showed reduced response to cold stress in cytosolic aequorin experiments. Double mutant MCA1/2 shows no difference suggesting same pathway
2. OSCA1 = Ca2+ channel gated by osmotic pressure
- One pore region, forms tetramer
- Localises to plasma membrane (GFP experiment)
- Mutant shows reduced Ca2+ mobilisation, in response to changes in osmolality
- ABA induced stomatal closure was no different in osca1 mutants, and no difference seen in response to H2O2 which causes [Ca2+] suggesting specificity to osmolality (Yuan et al., 2014)
29
What are annexins?
Soluble proteins that require Ca2+ binding to bind to negatively charged phospholipids
- bind via type II Ca2+ sites, not EF hands
- sensors and regulators of wounding (following eATP detection by DORN1) , and mutants had reduced JA production
- Annexin1 found to be important for drought stress, mutants had reduced resilience
30
What are two types of channels that sequester Ca2+?
Type IIA= ECA - endomembrane, found on golgi or ER. Help maintain low cytosolic Ca2+
Type IIB = ACA - found on plasma membrane, tonoplast, autoinhibited require activation by CaM. Pumps Ca2+ out of the cytosol e.g. ACA8 removing Ca2+ from cytosol, potentially interacting with FLS2
31
Name an example other than ACA of a transporter that is autoinhibited at the N terminus
CAX1
- low affinity antiporter of Ca2+/H+ across the vacuole membrane
- autoinhibited by Cax interacting proteins instead of CaM
32
What would be the result of CAM7 OE on COP1 and HY5? Phenotypically how would the plant present?
Phenotype = photomorphogenic (short hypocotyl)
- OE leads to greater COP1 suppression, and more HY5
- CAM7 is a positive regulator of HY5, by binding to the promoter region
33
What is the function of CAM7?
Active in light conditions, promoting the action of HY5 in inhibiting hypocotyl elongation
- Also present in the dark, however, unable to overcome effect of COP1 ubiquitination of HY5
34
What are the 4 key Ca2+ decoder families?
1. Calmodulin (CaM)
2. Calmodulin-like (CML)
3. Ca2+ dependent protein kinase (CDPK)
4. Calcineurin B-like (CBL)
35
Describe the structure and target of calmodulin
Structure - 2x EF hands, binding 2x Ca2+ each
- Located in the cytosol, nucleus, chloroplast and cell wall
Target (transporters, TFs, kinases and enzymes)
- Switches off CNGCs
- Switches on ACAs
- MK phosphatases as part of MAPK cascade
- CAMTA3 (a TF) when Ca2+ high CaM binds to CAMTA3 and suppresses transcription of immune related genes
36
Describe the structure and target of CAM-like proteins (CML)
1-6 EF hands
Response - to mechanosensing in roots, cml24 mutant unable to respond to mechanosensitive stress
Targets (transporters, kinases)
- CML36 targets ACA8 (Ca2+ ATPase involved in sucrose signalling)
- Targets protein kinases and transcription factors
37
Describe the structure and target of CDPKs
- Kinase domain and a CAM-like Ca2+ binding domain (EF hands)
Targets (transporters, enzymes, TFs)
- ACA8
- SLAC1 by CPK6/21 @Ser59
- form part of decoding of flg22 pathway
- CPK28 negatively regulates BIK1 by Pi and ubiquitination, resulting in reduced ROS production RBOHD
38
Describe the function of CBL and CIPK and their targets
- work together, CBL interacts with CBL interacting protein kinase (CIPK)
Targets (transporters only)
- transporters such as SOS1 (Na+/H+ antiporter)
- Activation of AKT1, specifically CIPK23/CBL1/9 in K+ deprivation
39
Explain the importance of the interaction between CNGC15 and DMI1
1. Important for the establishment of plant-microbe interactions
- requires high freq
- Nod and LCO factors added resulted in nuclear Ca2+ oscillations Sieberer et al., 2009 (using YC2.1)
2. Important for phenylpropanoid (plant defence) signalling
= CNGC15 forms a complex with DMI1 that alters the frequency of Ca2+ oscillations produced
40
What CNCGs are involved in root gravitropism? Explain their function
CNGC10 - mutant had lower Ca2+ levels and unable to respond to gravitropism
CNGC14 - mutant shows impaired response to auxin
= Ca2+ influx important to inhibit elongation
41
What is required for polar growth of the root hair? What genes are involved?
- Ca2+ GRADIENT required, evidenced by conc measurements showing high in the apical and less sub-apically
- CNGC14 (Ca2+ into cytosol, GUS shows greater localisation)
- ACA7 (autoinhibited Ca2+ ATPase) pumps Ca2+ out of cytoplasm, important for resetting (maybe not for gradient)
- KAT1 - for movement of K+ to retain turgor and drive polar growth
42
What is the role of ACA13?
- Calcium pump regulating calcium homeostasis
- Pump Ca2+ out of cytoplasm into the organelles such as the ER and vacuole
- Ensures that calcium oscillations are reset
POLAR tip growth and pollen tube elongation
- High Ca2+ promotes F-actin disassembly, promotes vesicle fusion
43
What are HACCs, what are their roles and some examples?
Hyperpolarisation activated Calcium Channels
= Via K+ efflux and activation of H+ ATPase, leading to more negative in the cytoplasm
- DMI1, GLRs and TPC1
- CNGCs (mutant analysis found lack of Ca2+ oscillations and abnormal phenotypes)
44
What evidence is there that homo and heterodimers form with CNGCs?
1. Fluorescence labelling, found 4 steps of fluorescence quenching
2. Repeat but with two different dyes, found two steps of quenching
45
What promotes CNGC18 activity?
1. Phosphorylation by CPK32 (Zhou et al., 2014)
2. Regulation by heteromer formation with CNGC7/8
3. Activation by Calmodulin, promoting heteromeric channels
4. Ca2+ presence
46
How do AtCNGC7 and AtCNGC8 regulate CNGC18 channel activity?
CNGC7/8 considered silent subunits
- Don't form channels on their own but regulate other channels
- Co-expression with CNGC18 leads to loss of channel activity
- Regulation by C-terminal interaction
47
What evidence suggests that CNGC18 predominantly interacts with CNGC8 rather than CNGC7?
Kd (dissociation constants) differ
Lower indication stronger interactions
- Analysis suggest CNGC8 stronger and more stable interaction
48
How does CaM (calmodulin) regulate the activity of AtCNGC8/18 and AtCNGC7/18 channel complexes?
- CaM acts as calcium binding protein that regulates channel activity
- Regulation by direct interaction depending on Ca2+ conc
- CaM has no effect on homomeric CNGC18 channel
- regulates activity of heteromeric AtCNGC7/18 and AtCNGC8/18
- HBOHH and HBOHJ important for activation of channels
49
Why is the abundance of CaM2 in pollen significant?
CaM2 abundant in pollen
- specifically activating CNGC18/7 and CNGC18/8 (Pan et al., 2019)
- regulating calcium signatures to control polarised growth
- control of the GLR channel AtGLR1.2
50
Describe the interplay between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca2+
- RBOH (respiratory burst oxidase homolog) encodes NADPH oxidase (NOX) (transfers e- from NADPH to oxygen)
- forms radicals and is regulated by Ca2+ binding to EF hands
- mutant rboh can't form true root hairs, due to lack of Ca2+ gradient
- ROS helps activate Ca2+ channels, generating a +ve feedback loop
51
Describe the role of ABA in inducing stomatal closure
1. Binds to PYL receptors
2. Inhibits PP2C and activates SnRK2/OST1
3. Phosphorylates RBOH (@Ser13/174), SLAC1 (@Ser-120), KAT1 (@Thr306), H+ ATPase and HACCs and ABFs to increase ABA response
4. HACC leads to [Ca2+]cyt changes
- Targetting CNGC 5,6,9,12
5. Activation of K+ efflux channel due to depolarisation
6. Loss in turgor of guard cell so stomatal closure
52
Describe the immune response to flg22
1. FLS2 (a PRR) binds to flg22
2. Undergoes conformational change and binds to co-receptor BAK1
3. Phosphorylation occurs, leading to activation of BIK1
4. BIK1 phosphorylates many targets, one of them being OSCA1.3 to promote Ca2+ channel opening. Also primes CNGC4 for activation (Thor et al., 2020)
5. Promoting stomatal closure to prevent pathogen entry
- ACA8/10 also shown to interact and be important for regulating immunity.
53
What controls the release of calcium out of the vacuole into the cytoplasm?
1. Two pore channel 1 (TPC1)
- voltage gated and activated by Ca2+ increase by Ca2+ induce Ca2+ release, however high is then inhibitory.
- important for ABA induced stomatal closure, propagation of salt wave (Choi et al., 2014)
2. CNGCs
- gated by cAMP and cGMP
3. IP3 and InsP6 pathway
- regulating calcium channels
54
What is the role of CDPKs in ABA regulated stomatal closure?
- Detect increase in [Ca2+] in the cytosol as a result of ABA
CPK3/6
1. Phosphorylation of NADPH oxidase to produce ROS
2. Activation of SLAC1 - efflux of Cl- and NO3-
CPK10
Inactivation of inward K+ channels such as KAT1
mutant cpk10 found that inward K+ channel couldn't be inhibited
55
Describe the wounding response
1. Release of eATP
2. eATP perceived by DORN1 that controls MAPK and Ca2+ response
- Choi et al., 2014 found that dorn1 mutants were unable to enact Ca2+ or ROS response to eATP
3. Results in a Ca2+ influx, requires CNGC2 (but no CNGC4), from mutant analysis
- Indirect activation by the production of cyclic nucleotides e.g. cAMP
4. Initial influx of Ca2+ through CNGC2 leads to activation of Ca2+ induced Ca2+ release e.g. activation TPC1
5. Greater Ca2+ increase that then triggers phytohormone production
56
Describe the calcium response to herbivory
1. Detection by PRR and co-receptor binding e.g. BAK1
2. Signal tranduction by GLRs (Ca2+ channels) and CNGCs
3. Release from intracellular stores (TPC1)
4. Downstream targets includes the production of ROS, hormone production and the MAPK cascade activation
57
Describe the process of initial salt sensing which results in a Ca2+ increase
Due to MOCA1 as a glucosyltransferase, adding sugar to GIPC sphingolipid
- mutants show reduced Ca2+ oscillations
- MOCA1 is found in the golgi by mCherry experiment
= Important protein in the synthesis of GIPC sphingolipids which moves to the membrane and regulates the structural integrity and charges.
-GIPC negatively charged so can bind Na+, depolarise surface and cause gated channel opening to allow Ca2+ entry into the cytosol
- Propagated by TPC1 and RBOHF
58
Describe the Salt-Overly Sensitive (SOS) pathway
Dose dependent increase in Ca2+ in response to conc of salt
1. Increase in Na+ in cell leads to Ca2+ increase
2. Ca2+ increase is detected by SOS3 (CBL4/8)
3. Binds to Ca2+ and undergoes conformational change, allowing it to bind to CIPK (SOS2)
4. Together can phosphorylate targets
5. Promoting efflux of Na+ by SOS1 (Ca2+/H+) antiporter and CAX1 sequestration of Na+ into vacuole
- Silicon addition blocks Na+ entry by silicate polymer formation
59
Describe the initiation, propagation and result of the Ca2+ wave in response to salt stress
Initiation = by MOCA1 and GIPC synthesis
Propagation = by TPC1 triggered by initial Ca2+ entry (Choi et al., 2014)
Result
= Ca2+ leads to activation CPK3 that Pi TPK1, causing K+ efflux and depolarisation, activating TPC1 as a positive feedback loop
= SOS pathway
= CBL10 pathway (independent of CBL4/8 but still uses CIPK24) Yang et al., 2019
60
What is the role of ROS in creating Ca2+ oscillations?
- Acts as a secondary messenger
- Oxidising cysteine regulators on upstream regulators of CNGCs, controlling their expression
- Oxidise cysteine in TPC1 leading to conformational change
= Promoting positive feedback loops, with increase in Ca2+ increasing activity of NOX, increasing ROS production
61
What is the role of ABA in stomatal closure, in terms of electrophysiology?
Depolarise the membrane away from -120mV to 0mV
Inhibit the H+ proton pump and K+ influx channel, promoting K+ efflux
62
How was the PYL receptor to which ABA binds to discovered?
1. Screening to find chemical that acts in a similar way to ABA (inhibit seed growth) and found Pyrabactin
2. Mutant analysis looking for the receptor
- Found that quadruple mutant for the receptor was unable to respond to ABA
63
What regulator did ABA insensitive (ABI) plants not encode and what are the downstream effects?
Mutant in PP2C (type 2 protein phosphatase)
- Meant that SnRK activation is constant, so constantly activating Ca2+ influx
= Stomatal closure due to signalling of stress and this can have an effect on development
- Upon addition of ABA show no changes to Ca2+ or ROS production
64
What is the evidence for ABI/PP2C and PYL interactions?
1. In vitro binding assays
2. Co-immunoprecipitation assays
3. Bi-fluorescence complentation using YFP
65
What is the role of and mode of action of RGLG1?
Is an E3 Ub ligase degrades PP2C in the presence of ABA (downstream of PYR detection)
- In no ABA RGLG1 is at the plasma membrane
- In ABA RGLG1 moves to the nucleus to degrade PP2Cs
= promoting stomatal closure
66
Describe the role of OST1 in ABA mediated stomatal closure
1. ABA binding to PYR removes suppressive activity of PP2C on OST1
2. Autophosphorylation of OST1 occurs
3. Activation/ Priming of downstream targets to increase Ca2+ concs to induce stomatal closure
e.g. RBOH, SLAC1
67
Describe the inhibition of KAT1 in stomatal closure
- Activated at voltages more negative than -120mV (so inhibited during ABA-stomatal closure)
(Has 6 transmembrane helices, first 4 act as VSD, states representing how much they are in the membrane, up = channel close, down = channel open)
- Ca2+ increase activates CPK10 to phosphorylate KAT1
- SnRK2.6/ OST1 Pi KAT1 to inhibit also
68
Describe the activation of GORK1
Efflux of K+ from guard cells
Activated by voltage NOT Ca2+
- at voltages more positive than around -50 (+50mV from resting)
- Cluster by interacting with positive charges of nearby voltage sensing domains. Suppressing can increase channel activity and increase water use efficiency
Reversal potential (no net flow of ions)
- 90mV, close to equilibrium potential of K+ , so more negative means channels are closed
69
Describe the features of SLAC1
- Efflux of Cl- and Malate
- Activated by ABA, slow
- Active over a wide range of voltages (voltage insensitive)
Activated by Pi by SnRK or CDPK, ABA -> Increase in Ca2+
70
What changes occur to tonoplast channels in ABA signalling for stomatal closure?
1. TPK1 increases first by Ca2+. movement of K+
2. Voltage changes leads to TPC1 activation (TPC1 activation requires Ca2+ binding and voltage change Guo et al., 2015)
3. Movement of Ca2+ and K+ out of vacuole
= positive feedback loop
71
Describe the process of experimental reconstruction of the ABA signalling pathway
- In xenopus egg
1. ABA responsive element with ABRE binding factor (ABF), isn't enough for activation
2. Introduction of SnRK to phosphorylate ABF2 did activated ABRE transcribing luciferase
3. Addition of ABI/ PP2C with no ABA, led to inhibition of SnRK
4. Addition of PYR and ABA, inhibited the function of ABI1/PP2C
72
What is the use of in silico reconstruction for biological pathways?
1. See if understanding is correct, by regenerating
2. Find new levels of regulation
3. Optimising pathways, find rate-limiting steps
73
What is a monostable and bistable dynamic?
Monostable - one stable steady state
Bistable - two stable steady states
74
How are interactions and transcription modelled?
Interactions - Law of mass action
Transcription - modelled by michaelis-menten (by rate of binding of promoter and rate of transcription to predict amount of mRNA)
75
What is Boolean modelling?
Generates a unitary output from no more than two inputs
- AND, OR, NOT
- each component has two states, on or off
DISCOVERY: That PP2C is regulated by Ca2+ and later found EF hands
76
What is OnGuard Quantitative Kinetic modelling?
- Use of kinetic models integrating ion channels, pump and metabolites
= Modelling the movement of ions
Can also be used to see how changes in the environment may have an affect
77
What is the circadian clock and its role?
Endogenous time keeping mechanism that regulates a 24hr cycle
Role: Anticipate environmental changes to optimise physiology
78
What are the properties of the circadian clock?
1. Entrainment by environmental cues (highest sensitivity at night)
2. Has a free running period (constant conditions), but retains 24hr periodic oscillations
3. Temperature compensated
79
What are the 4 key components of the circadian clock?
Entrainment - synchronisation with external time
Circadian oscillator - generating 24hr rhythm
Gating - changes output based on entrainment
Output - comversion of temporal information to physiology
80
What are diel and circadian rhythms? Difference
Diel - 24hr rhythm of dark and light, with oscillations stopping once exposed to constant conditions
Circadian - 24hr rhythm of dark and light, continues under constant conditions, driven by internal oscillator
81
What is the free-running period
Duration of the circadian cycle in constant conditions
82
What can the circadian rhythm regulate?
Leaf angle
Growth
Stomatal movement
Flowering
General gene expression
83
What are the requirements for an oscillator gene? (4)
1. Must oscillate in the circadian period
2. Mutation leads to circadian defect
3. Control expression of other genes, but also self-regulate
4. Clamping of genes should stop the clock
84
Describe the function and role of TOC1
Timing of Cab1
- Short period mutant, nuclear localised
- Encodes a pseudo-response regulator (PRR), lacks a kinase
ACCUMULATE in the EVENING, repressing CCA1 and LHY by binding to T1ME DNA sequence. Itself is repressed by CCA1 and LHY.
Degraded by ZTL in the dark, suppresses PIFs in the dark = growth only in pre-dawn
Antagonises FHY3 in the morning which is responsible for induction of CCA1 expression, TOC1 requires Pi at S175 for optimal interaction
85
Describe the role of CCA1
Circadian Clock Associated 1 (CCA1)
- MYB like transcription factor, requires Pi by Casein Kinase 2 for proper function
- Binds to initiate photosynthesis and morning-related genes
- Represses TOC1, PPRs, LUX and CCA1 (self)
- OE leads to disruption of the circadian cycle
ACCUMULATE in EARLY MORNING
86
Describe the role of LHY
Late Elongated Hypocotyl (LHY)
- Similar to CCA1, also a TF and can form heterodimers
- Regulates its own expression
ACCUMULATE in EARLY MORNING
87
What mediates red and blue light entrainment into the circadian cycle?
Red = phytochromes (PhyA and PhyB)
Blue = cryptochromes (ZLT), containing FAD. Also found to interact with TOC1
88
Describe the single loop model of the circadian rhythm and its inaccuracies
- TOC1 accumulates and indirectly promotes expression of CCA1 and LHY.
- CCA1 and LHY negatively regulates TOC1 = negative feedback
- Phytochromes sensing red light, influence CCA1 and LHY expression
NEGATIVES
- Oversimplication
- cca1 and lhy double mutant, another gene is present for TOC1 oscillations
- delay for TOC1 activation morning complex
89
What is the role of gigantea (GI)?
Peaks in the evening, forms part of circadian oscillator
- helps maintain the correct phase of the clock by interacting with ZTL in the presence of blue light and stabilises it
- OE analysis changed period length
- role in conserving energy during extended periods of darkness
1. Regulates TOC1 degradation by binding to ZTL in blue light
2. Bind FKF1 in blue light, releasing repression on CONSTANS caused by CDF1 (Cycling Dof Factor) in long day
= resulting in flowering
90
Describe the importance of sucrose to circadian regulation
Metabolic feedback to the circadian clock
- Bridging photosynthesis and presence of light to darkness and respiration
- Regulates genes expression of CCA1, LHY and TOC1
- In low sugar, expression of GI is altered
GI being important to regulate energy uses, and conserve during extended periods of darkness
90
What is the role of TOR?
Target of Rapamycin
= kinase that helps regulate response to sucrose and other nutrients
- regulating cell growth and division
91
How does TOC1 effect Circadian clock associated (CCA1) and Late elongated hypocotyl (LHY)?
- Suppression facilitated by interactions with PRRs
- Maintaining the correct timing
92
Are toc1 and ztl short or long period mutants?
toc1 short period mutant, does better in short
ztl long period mutant
93
How does the circadian rhythm regulate immunity?
Entrainment of plants in light/dark cycles that coincided with entrainment of loopers had greater resistance
- Loopers also show rhythmic feeding in constant conditions
Plants entrained out of phase relative to insects were more susceptible
= CLOCK-ENHANCED HERBIVORY RESISTANCE
e.g. Loopers more likely to feed in light, coincides with peak jasmonates
(Goodspeed et al., 2012)
94
How does the circadian clock vary at different latitudes?
- Higher latitudes have greater variation in light intensity and quality
- However lower, closet to the equator there is minimal change between seasons
- Also less temperature changes throughout the year
95
What is phase advance and phase delay?
Phase advance - internal clock shifted early relative to normal
Phase delay - internal clock shifted later, relative to normal
- Pulses of light administered in the morning leads to phase advance, while pulse in the middle of the day leads to phase delay
96
What is gating?
Activity of a gene is restricted to certain times of the day within the 24hr period
97
Describe dawn light regulation and the main transcription factor involved
Far Red Elongated Hypocotyl 3 (FHY3)
- acts downstream of PhyA, PhyA accumulates and indirectly activates
- Gated by the circadian oscillator, only activates CCA1 (via fbs element) and ELF4 at certain times of the day, due to binding inhibition by TOC1 to FHY3 in the dark Oravec + Greenham 2022
- Antagonised by TOC1
- can dimerise with FAR1
- Likely able to bind with HY5 and help converge blue and red light signals
(Rhodes et al., 2022)
98
Describe dusk light regulation and the transcription factor involved
Modulation of ZTL and COP1 activity
In light conditions: PHR and CRY inhibit COP1 and GIGANTEA inhibits ZTL
Dark conditions: ZTL and COP1 mediate degradation of clock oscillatory proteins
99
How does temperature entrain the circadian clock?
- Pulses of higher temperature causes a phase shift, increasing temperatures resulting in period shortening
- Experiments growing plants in same temperature regime but in antiphase with daylength, found that gene expression was more highly correlated with temperature
1. ELF3 temperature-dependent phase separation, inactivation at high temperature = increase in PRR7 and a decrease in morning phase genes (CCA1/LHY)
(prion-like domain)
- low temperature allows ELF4 from shoot to root, to synchronise the clock
- Morning pulse until 6pm leads to a phase delay
- Between 6pm to 24:00 leads to phase advance
100
What is the evening complex?
- ELF3 + ELF4 and LUX (DNA binding protein)
- Required for temperature entrainment (suggested ELF3 to be main part)
- Suppresses expression of PRR7 and PRR9
101
How were sugar shown to entrain the oscillator?
- Inhibition of photosynthesis by CO2 free area can lengthen the circadian period
- Dark and addition of sucrose, changed circadian cycle and expression of CCA1/LHY
- prr7 + 9 mutants are insensitive to sucrose. Sucrose found to modulate these morning genes via KIN10 and bZIP63
- When T6P builds up during the day, this inhibits KIN10 and results in reduced PRR7
- Important also for regulating starch degradation at night
102
What are the effects of low energy on regulation of PRR7?
1. Low energy activates SnRK1 (KIN10/11)
2. KIN10/11 phosphorylates bZIP63 at serine residues causing conformational change
3. bZIP63 accumulates in the nucleus and binds to promoters (promotes ATG8, Sucrose synthase and indirectly inhibits TOR)
= Increases PRR7, conservation of energy
103
What is the role of PIF4?
bHLH transcription factor that activates growth genes and auxin responsive genes
- expression oscillates
- Degraded by PhyB interaction which is light dependent
Mutants have phy have long hypocotyl
104
What inhibits and what promotes PIF?
Inhibits
- PRR7/9, TOC1, PHYB and evening complex (EC)
- COP1 in light, as HY5 is active
- DELLA
Promotes
- darkness,
- auxins, BR and
- Stress conditions
- GI
105
Why is the study of the circadian clock agronomically relevant?
CHRONOCULTURE - harnessing the circadian clock to improve crop yield and sustainability.
1. Change in geographical change, resulting in changes in light which regulates development e.g. tomato cultivation changed due to mutation in LNK2 causing elongation of circadian period
2. Also relevant for climate change, change in temperature without significant changes in light resulting in early flowering and reduced growth, EC important for entraining temperature. DECOUPLING of TEMPERATURE and PHOTOPERIOD
3. Indoor farming - controlled conditions and used to optimise growth. Convergence of photoperiods to allow multiple crops to be grown in the same conditions
4. Biotic interactions- dependent on the circadian cycle, lhy mutants in Medicago had reduced nodule formation (Steed et al., 2021)
106
What is the effect of temperature on TOC1 and growth?
High temperature stabilises TOC1 and suppresses PIF which reduces growth in the evening
107
What is the N and P fertiliser use efficiency by the plant?
N = 33%
P = 16% - due to properties in soil
108
Describe the global distribution of fertilisers
- Unevenly distributed across the globe
- Greater production in HICs due to cost of the process, however, a lot of the consumption is elsewhere, e.g. in LICs
- China and India both produce and consume a lot
109
Name some examples of biological N fixation
Rhizobia - also have a nitrogenase enzyme, from Sym plastid. Use leghemoglobin from the plant for oxygen for respiration
Cyanobacteria - have heterocysts and nitrogenase enzymes that convert N to ammonia. Followed by GOGAT for fixing
110
Describe examples of large scale nutrient cycles?
Extinction events resulting in large scale death of organisms and material for decomposition
- End-Permian caused by volcanic events at Siberian traps
- End-Cretaceous 66Mya dinosaurs
111
How do plants adapt to changes in nutrient availability?
1. Changes to root architecture
2. Changes to root exudates
- Increase in carboxylates to compete with Pi
3. Interaction with microbes
112
Describe the interaction with ectomycorrhizal fungi
- Evolved more recently and restricted to 2% of all species
- Forms a Hartig net around the root for nutrient exchange
- Doesn't penetrate the cell wall
e.g. Pine seedling grown in symbiosis with the ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus bovinus
113
Describe the phenomenon of N symbiosis
- Evolved 80-100Mya
- Cross-over with symbiosis pathway due to CSSP
- Symbiosis carried out by Frankia and Rhizobia with legumes
114
What are the 4 pathways for N signalling?
1. Local N perception
2. Long distance for depletion (CEPs)
3. Long distance for replete (hormones, cytokinins)
4. Shoot derived signals
115
What is the evidence for systemic signalling of nutrient deficiency?
- Split root system, with stimulus being applied on one side and monitoring overall changes
- Varying signals of replete and deplete nutrient conditions, which then result in proliferation of roots in replete conditions and suppression in deplete half
116
Describe the signalling pathway for N deficiency
1. Productions of CEPs
2. Travel up the roots to the shoot where they bind to CEP receptors (CRA2)
- CEPs ability to increase nodule number was increased by hydroxylation
- CRA2 promotes miR2111
3. Activation of CEP downstream (CEPD) peptides that travel down to elicit response
- CEPD fusion with GFP, experiment with WT scion show shoot to root movement
4. Prioritise N uptake up increasing the expression of high affinity nitrate transporters by CEP induced phosphatases (CEPH)
117
What is the role of CEPH? When is it active?
CEPD induced phosphatases (CEPH)
- More active under N deplete conditions to upregulate HA transporters
- Activates NRT2.1 by dephosphorylation at the Ser-501 residue
- Requires integration of local N starvation signalling
118
Describe the role of NRT1.1 in nitrate sensing and experiments that were carried out
- Mutation in certain amino acids leads to disruption in transport
- Found that changes in gene expression still occurred, mediated by NLP7 that was still activated due Ca2+ influx that activates CPK10/30/32
- NRT2.1 expression which acts downstream was still increased, proving role of NRT1.1 in N sensing
119
Describe the downstream signalling from the sensing function of NRT1.1
1. Senses low levels of nitrate
2. Triggers Ca2+ influx into the cell
3. Activates CPK10/30/32 and CBL1/9
4. CBL1/9 activates CIPK23, phosphorylates NRT1.1 to become HA take up more nitrate
5. Activation of NLP7 by phosphorylation at Ser-205 by CPK10/30/32 leading to retention in nucleus
6. NLP7 promotes expression of primary nitrate response genes
120
Describe the transport function of NRT1.1
Low nitrate - NRT1.1 transports auxin away from root tip so no growth.
High nitrate - NRT1.1 transports nitrate instead, so auxin can build up and cause lateral root growth. Generating greater surface area for N take up.
121
What promotes foraging by the roots for nutrients?
Changes to architecture triggered by presence of cytokinin
- cytokinin synthesis mutants, unable to forage for N
- also leads to downregulation of HA transporters by cytokinin to save energy
122
How can nitrate signal integrate with carbon signalling?
In normal conditions phosphorylation of NLP7 is via CPK10/30/32 at a Ser-205 residue resulting in nuclear localisation
In either C or N deficiency, phosphorylation of NLP7 is by SnRK1 (KIN10) at different serine residues Ser-125/306 which leads to cytoplasmic localisation
123
What is the role of NLP7?
Transcription activator and intracellular nitrate sensor = **activity regulated by its localisation**
- In high N it is retained in the nucleus
- Nitrate capable of binding directly to conserved domain in NLPs
- Targets nitrate responsive genes, such as NRT2.1
- Links auxin signalling and nitrate signalling in the root cap
124
Describe the phosphate starvation response
1. Activation of PHR transcription factors
2. Activate PSI genes promoting phosphate uptake such as PHO1, PHF1 and PHTs
3. Also activates SPX as a feedback loop, which are important in sensing InsP and binding to PHR and prevent it from functioning
4. Regulation downstream is via microRNA, 399 for PHO2 and miR827 targetting NLA1
5. Also suppresses immunity to support symbiosis
125
What are the methods in which PHO2 are regulated?
1. Post translation by phosphorylation by casein kinase 2 (CK2) Wang et al., 2020 that decreases stability
2. Post-transcriptionally by miR399, that is inhibited itself by IPS1.
126
How does strigolactone synthesis effect phosphate uptake?
SL inhibits shoot branching, mutant had more branching
- Cross over with symbiosis, PHR2 able to bind and activate SL genes
SL important for symbiosis establishment, triggering hyphal branching etc.
127
What expression analyses show that PHR2 is involved in AM symbiosis?
- PHR2 predominantly expressed in the epidermis and steele
- AM colonisation mainly occurs in the cortex, and GUS reporter showed it localised there when colonised
- Also shown to bid to NSP2, ARK1 and other AM genes
- mutant phr2 showed less colonisation, and 70% reduction in AM-related genes
128
How can plants distinguish between friend and foe for fungi?
Foe - immunity triggered upon detection of peptidoglycan, activating WRKYs in the nucleus
Friend - lipochitooligosaccharides (LCO) sensed by LysM receptors, activating CCaMK
(also in relation to drop in immunity, upon nutrient stress which leads to symbiosis)
129
What are the different types of SLs?
Canonical
- regulate AM symbiosis, mutants have delayed symbiosis
- rhizospheric
Non-canonical
- shoot branching
130
Describe the SL and SMAX1 signalling pathway in AM symbiosis
SMAX1 acts as a repressor of SL signalling
1. Upon SL perception by D14L, SMAX1 is targeted for ubiquitination
2. Releases inhibition of SL-responsive genes
131
What is autoregulation of nodule symbiosis?
- Spreading out of nodules to prevent overoccumulation
- Regulated by Too Much Love (TML)
1. Clavata3-like (CLE) acts as a signal
2. Binds to CEP receptor (HAR1)
3. Promotes TML to suppress nodules
- TML regulated by miR2111
132
What is the role of FUN?
Encodes a transcription factor that has a sensor domain binding Zinc
High Zn/ Low nitrate -> filamentous form (inactive) that removes suppression of symbiosis, promoting nodule formation. FUN is multimeric
Low Zn/ High nitrate -> monomeric FUN, upregulates NRT2.1 and HO1 (haem oxygenase that degrades leghaemoglobin to cause nodule senescence)
Zinc in field alleviates drought stress and promotes nitrate accumulation (Lin et al., 2024)
133
What are phytohormones?
Chemical messengers that co-ordinate growth and development of cells. In plants, not centralised released, all cells are capable of releasing chemicals
- Examples: Auxin, Cytokinins, Gibberellins, ABA and ethylene, JA and SA
With synthesis being tightly controlled
134
Describe the movement, reception and transduction of hormones
Movement - through xylem or phloem, or gaseous, or through transport proteins
Receptors - membrane bound, or soluble across the membrane
Transduction - Phosphorylation/ Dephosphorylation. Transcriptional changes (longer), or non-genomic direct-binding changing conformation or channel activity
135
Describe the structure of the auxin inducible gene
1. Auxin Responsive elements (ARE)
- To which Auxin Responsive Factors (ARFs) bind to, promoting transcription
2. Rest is the gene
3. Aux/IAA a transcriptional repressor, capable of binding to ARF and inhibiting it
136
What genes were discovered to be part of the ubiquitination of Aux/IAA?
1. AXR1 encodes subunit for RUB1 activating enzyme
2. TIR1 encodes an F-box protein conferring specificity to Aux/IAA.
- from Co-IP studies that found binding in an auxin dose responsive manner.
137
What is the role of AXR3, what did gain-of-fucntion mutant analysis show?
AXR3 member of Aux/IAA transcriptional repressor family
- mutant leads to auxin resistant root elongation (no response to auxin)
138
Describe the structure of the Aux/IAA family
Domain I - contains EAR domain that recruits TOPLESS, for transcription repression
Domain II - important for degradation, GUS destabilised in WT, compared to mutant axr3
Domain III - involved in dimerisation with ARFs, mediated by PB1 domain
Domain IV - also involved in dimerisation, contains PB1 domain
139
What is the role of TOPLESS (TPL)?
Contains WD40 which complexes with HDACs
- de-acetylase which targets histones
-deacetylation of histones results in tighter DNA packaging
- preventing transcription of a gene
140
What is skotomorphogenesis and photomorphogenesis?
Skoto- plant response to the dark e.g. etiolation
Photo - plant response to light
141
What are the 3 key receptors for the perception of light (red.blue and UV)
1. Phytochromes
2. Cryptochromes
3. UVR8
142
What is the role of COP1?
Constitutive photomorphogenesis
- mutant phenotype has short hypocotyl
- an E3 ligase, targeting receptors (phyA as well as HY5)
- Targets CONSTANS for degradation at night
143
What is the role of HY5?
Transcription factor repressing cell elongation, nutrient acqusition genes and photosynthesis genes
- mutant has an elongated hypocotyl
144
What could be done to test whether growth of the hypocotyl is due to the presence of photosynthate, or in response to light?
- Growth in CO2 free air, so unable to carry out photosynthesis
- Knockout genes in the photosynthesis pathway so unable to produce photosynthate
- Growth in different sucrose conditions
145
What is the effect of different sucrose concentrations on plant growth?
- Different sucrose concentrations didn't effect hypocotyl growth, but did affect root growth
- in low sucrose conditions, in cop1 mutant growth of the root differed in light and dark conditions
= Plant invest more energy into the hypocotyl until it is able to photosynthesis, then starts growing root system, so shoot less affected by sucrose conditions as it is prioritised
146
What is the role of PIF4?
TF responsible for the growth seen in the dark, skotomorphogenesis
- Mutant pif4 shows lack of growth
- Increases in during the night
- Suppressed by HY5
- Also can be suppressed by Pfr
147
Describe how red light is detected
- Use of phytochromes that detects light via bilib
- phyB mutant etiolates
DARK = Pr inactive
LIGHT = Pfr active
Detection of light by Pr leads to conversion to Pfr, which then translocates to the nucleus and inhibits PIF from promoting growth
148
How is blue light sensed (not in circadian clock)?
- By cryptochromes that contain the Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
Active - by phosphorylatin, sequesters COP1
Deactivated - by dephophorylation
- Activates HY5 to suppress PIFs
149
How is blue light sensed for circadian clock entrainment?
By ZEITLUPE (ZTL)
- Contains Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
- Indirectly promotes PIF degradation
- Also targets TOC1 for degradation (which is present in the evening and suppresses morning LHY/ CCA1)
150
How is UVB sensed by the plant?
- Detection by UVR8 which has tryptophan
MONOMER - active
Dimer - inactive
- Dimer forms from ionic interactions between positive and negative charges
Method of action
- Binds to the pocket of COP1 so that HY5 can't bind and be degraded. So HY5 is free to inhibit PIFs
151
Describe the role of Gibberellic acid signalling on growth
DELLA is present as a transcriptional repressor when there is no GA
1. GA binds to GA receptor GID1, conformational change occurs
2. GID1 binds to DELLA targetting it for proteolysis
3. Transcription factor no longer suppressed
152
What are the similarities and differences between Auxin and GA signalling?
Similarities
1. Presence of suppressors Aux/IAA and DELLA that are then targeted in presence of auxin and GA, respectively
2. Involvement of ubiquitin and 26S proteosomal degradation
3. Differences
Auxin - TIR1is the receptor and E3 ligase
GA - GID1 is the receptor, that then recruits SLY as an E3 ligase
153
Describe the pathway of Brassinosteroid signalling (6)
1. BR is detected by BRI1, that binds to coreceptor BAK1
2. Co-phosphorylate each other
3. Activation of BSKs
4. BSKs phosphorylate BSU1, a phosphatase
5. BSU1 acts on BIN2, dephosphorylating it and rendering it inactive
6. BIN2 no longer able to inhibit transcription factor BZR1/ BES1
154
Describe the BAP-D module
Brassinosteroid- auxin- PIF DELLA module
- ARFs, PIFs and BZR1 are bHLH TF
- can complex together and regulate transcription at the the G-Box and GCEs
- DELLA can inhibit all 3
155
Suggest how hormonal signalling pathways overlap to regulate growth
1. PIFs that are regulated by the BAP-D module feedback and regulate GA, BR and auxin signalling (via YUC)
2. Use of Ca2+ as a secondary messenger to regulate downstream targets
3. Auxin promotes GA biosynthesis and GA affectin PIN localisation, for auxin transport, in rice
156
Describe the ways in which hormone levels can be detected (3)
1. Chromatography and Mass spec
- Separation then detection
2. ELISA - generating antibodies against the hormone
3. Fluorescent biosensors- allows for real time imaging of hormone concentrations and gradients
e.g. GA gradient, higher conc in the zone of elongation compare to the sub-apical region
157
What are some genes that regulate hypocotyl elongation downstream of BZR/BES/ARFs and PIFs?
1. IBH1 acts as a suppressor for elongation (HLH TF)
2. PRE1 (bHLH TF) with no basic DNA binding domain, promotes elongation
3. HBI1 - growth promoting bHLH TF, more present in larger cells
158
Describe the structure and function of bHLH transcription factors
basic helix loop helix
- Helix 1 with N terminus "basic region" is crucial for DNA binding
- Helix 2 with C terminus crucial for dimerisation
= Bind to DNA and regulate transcription, often acting as dimers
e.g. HBI1
159
How can Ca2+ encode signal specificity?
- Different signals with different graded responses
- Spatial and temporal dynamics
- Different cell types for different responses
160
How can specific gene expression be targeted to a cell?
Enhancer trapper technique
- Transgene contains
1. Enhancer detector element (e.g. transcription factor GAL4)
2. Organelle specific promoter fused
3. Resistance/ Marker gene
Other gene
1. Apoaequorin (desired expressed gene)
2. Upstream activating Sequence (UAS) to which GAL4 binds to
- So expression only occurs where the GAL4 TF is expressed, leading to specific organellar localisation of apoaequorin
161
How does external levels of calcium affect Ca2+ oscillations?
Increase in concentrations can lead to asymmetrical oscillations, as apoplast is source for Ca2+
Low concentrations may not be enough to start oscillations
162
Describe the importance of Ca2+ oscillations? Are they always necessary?
Important
- Transient spikes are also important, for example in an immune response
- Different freq of Ca2+ oscillations in the nucleus important for regulating symbiosis or plant defence.
Non-important
- In the tip of pollen tubes, removal of oscillations had no effect
- Frequency of oscillations doesn't seem to affect stomatal closure, however, did effect the ability to re-open them. Lower freq able to open them better
163
What is the role of cyclic ADPR on calcium oscillations?
- Important for it to be cyclic, addition leads to oscillations and stomatal closure
- Made from NAD+ by the enzyme CD38
1. Activates TPC1 channels on the tonoplast
2. Ca2+ increases in the cytosol and causes inhibition, resulting in an equilibrium being reached
164
What is the role of IP3 on Ca2+ oscillations?
- Promotes the presence of oscillations
- Addition of Phopholipase C inhibitor reduces the amount of IP3 and a lack of oscillations
165
Describe the importance of DET3, and where it is located.
- Vacuolar ATPase responsible for generating the membrane potential
- Mutant det3 unable to generate potential so couldn't generate the Ca2+ oscillations
- ABA induced closure not as affected as can directly act on SLAC and KAT, and channels on the plasma membrane?
166
Why is the affinity of the sensor also important for Ca2+ transduction?
- Differences in affinity will sens spikes differently
- High affinity will generate a larger fuller response and not detect it as a spike, while a lower affinity sensor would
- So same oscillation with different sensor can lead to a different response
167
What are the different short and long term oscillatory mechanisms regulating stomatal closure and aperture?
Short term- regulated by CPKs that phosphorylate and alter channel activity, also the role of ROS in regulating HACCs
- Mutant cpk unable to close stomata due to inability to activate SLAC
Long term - cpk mutant unaffected and not sure about mechanism
168
What is the interaction between CPK and GORK1?
- CPK21 can phosphorylate GORK1, which in turn is activated by 14-3-3 in salt stress
- Studies showing enhanced K+ efflux in greater concentrations of 14-3-3, and found that CPK21 may form the bridge linking them
- CPK21 and 23 activity enhanced in the presence of 14-3-3
169
How do plants avoid shade?
Shade Avoidance Syndrome (SAS) - Increase internode length, changes in leaf angle, reduced leaf area
1. Detection of far red light that is transmitted through leaves, due to red light chlorophyll absorption
2. Detected PhyB, and converts from Pfr to Pr (inactive)
3. No longer able to suppress PIFs, so = Results in hypocotyl and petiole elongation to grow out of the shade
(PIF7 activation -> YUCCA -> Auxin -> hyponasty)
FEEDBACK LOOP
- Activation of PAR1/2 bHLH transcription factors that prevent PIFs from binding to their targets. OE results in reduced elongation response
CIRCADIAN - greater response to shade during the expected daytime than the expected nighttime. ELF3 suppresses prevents PIF4 from activation
170
How do plants respond to thermogenesis? (General and specific effects)
Warmth = promotes growth
Cold required for breaking seed dormancy and flowering (winter before spring)
General - alterations to the rate of enzymatic reactions as a result of changes in temperature
Specific - changes to the end goal e.g. size or length of an organ, or number of leaves
171
How is thermogenesis integrated with PIF and gene expression? (6)
1. Via Pfr inactivation (conversion to Pr) due to thermal reversion at higher temp
2. Inhibition of ELF3 (part of EC), that is responsible for suppressing PIF4
3. UVR8 reversion to dimer by RUP1/2, this temperature mediated
4. Cryptochromes undergo thermal reversion
5. Lov domain responds to temperature, present in zeitlupe
6. Removal of suppression of PIF4/7. PIF7 has hairpin in 5'UTR that undergoes changes in warmth to increase transcription
= Promote growth in warm temperatures
172
Describe the evidence that shows that PhyB is a thermo and light sensor
Experiment monitoring the transcript levels of ATBH2 a transcription factor promoting hypocotyl elongation, downstream of PIF4
1. At 20°C normal increase in ATBH2 levels occurs at the end of the night, this is due to the half life of Pfr that turns into inactive Pr due to the lack of far red light
2. At 27°C increase in ATBH2 is more rapid at night, due to thermal reversion of Pfr into Pr
- Mutant PhyB did not respond to temperature. So the changes seen between light and dark and different temperatures supports the notion that PhyB acts as a sensor for light and temperature
173
What is the evidence/ How is ELF3 regulated by temperature?
Experiments looking at light defraction found that ELF3 goes through phase transition
At different temperatures the protein is folded differently, at higher temperatures the solution is less diffuse as folding is more organised
- Undergoes liqui-liquid phase separation (LLPS) that means it's no longer able to bind and inhibit PIF4
174
How does the plant distinguish between low light and night?
Circadian clock gating
- Role of circadian clock to accumulate EC in the evening and suppress the mRNA of PIFs
175
How do plants handle sunflecks?
PhyA and PhyB important in sensing light and responding rapidly to make the most of it
- Increase in HY5 transcript after 2hr of sunfleck, resulting in suppression of growth (as during day there should be no growth)
- Mutant in phyA/B continued to grow as if it dark conditions, while cry mutant didn't suggesting PHYA/B is important
176
How do plants prevent self shading?
1. Basal senescence - removing old leaves found at the bottom
2. Phyllotaxis - changes in lead arrangement
3. Hyponasty - auxin movement from tip to petiole to promote stem elongation
- experiment with external application
- PIF7 important for YUCCA and auxin formation
4. Lower R:FR indicative of shading shifts phytochrome activity
+ Tip better at detecting shade, which would occur from other plants
177
How is Calcium efflux carried out to restore the baseline concentration of Ca2+ in the cytosol?
- Requires energy as it is moving against the concentration gradient
- Ca2+ ATPases e.g. ACA8 on the plasma membrane,
- Vacuolar Ca²⁺-H⁺ Antiporters (CAX proteins)
178
Describe the importance of asymmetric hormone distribution
Phototropism and Gravitropsim, also important for organ developing as gradients are needed for apical-basal axis
- auxin accumulation on the shaded side, leading to cell elongation and bending towards the right
- Antagonistic roles in shoots and roots for gravitropism, gradient created by statoliths causing PIN rearrangement and changing auxin distribution. PIN rearrangement could potential be due to NPH3
179
What receptors detect light and cause shoot bending?
PHOT1 and PHOT2 (Phototropin)
- Have a LOV1/2 photosensory domain containing a Flavin Mononucleotide (FMV) that detects blue light
- Ring like structure that undergoes conformational change and 90° rotation
- Results in kinase domain (of PHOT1) activation and Pi of PIN to re-localise
180
How do plants respond to soil compaction?
1. Mechanical stress is sensed, oxygen deficiency and altered water availability
2. Mechanosensitive channels are activated, and hormone production is altered
3. Increase in ethylene production and changes to auxin distribution limiting root tip growth
Changes
- Inhibition of root growth
- More curved apical hook (protect meristem)
- Swelling of hypocotyl
181
Describe the interaction between growth and immunity signalling pathways in plants
Hypocotyl specific BAP-Inducible (HBI) forms a node for immunity signalling e.g. of flg22
- Regulate an overlapping set of genes but antagonstically. So HBI1 suppresses genes involved in immunity and PAMPs suppress HBI1 (Fan et al., 2014)
- For example Flg22-Induced Receptor Kinase 1 (FRK1) expression is reduced in HBI-Ox
182
What are the different clades of ARFs and their roles?
Class A (II) = Activator - Q-rich middle domain
Class B (I) = repressor
Class C = unknown
- Allowing for diversity of responses
Marchantia has 3, one belonging to each clade. Suggest divergence into clades is evolutionarily old
183
Describe the phylogeny of ARFs, Aux/IAAs and TIR1
The evolutionary divergence from Marchantia to Arabidopsis illustrates the increasing complexity of regulatory networks that have evolved over time
ARF
- DNA binding site shows ultra-conservation
- Varying affinities between ARFs and their promoters
Aux/IAA
- Greater number of genes found in Arabidopsis compared to Marchantia, suggest increase in complexity
- Different Aux/IAA have different half lives
TIR1
- Greater number in A.thaliana
- Redundancy, between them as mutations in all can be lethal
184
What are the reasons for auxin having so many different roles?
1. Diversity in receptors e.g. ARFs, Aux/IAA and TIR1 that can lead to different combinations and different responses
2. High degree of cross-talk with other hormones so can have many roles e.g. in hypocotyl elongation (ARF6/7/8) and lateral root formation (ARF7/19)
3. Evolutionary conservation and diversification, mutations leads to unfavourable phenotypes so pathway has been conserved
185
Describe the extracellular perception of auxin
1. Auxin detected ABP1
2. Activates TMK1 that phosphorylates AHA2
3. AHA is a proton pump that acidifies the apoplast
4. Promotes cell growth and elongation independent of TIR1 mediated transcriptional regulation
186
Describe how phototropism occurs
1. Light is sensed by photoreceptors (PHY, CRY and UVR8)
2. Photoreceptors can:
a. UVR8 monomer moves to the nucleus and supports HY5 suppression of PIFs
b. Photoreceptors alter auxin signalling (PINs)
c. Photoreceptors alter auxin perception (Aux/IAA and TIR1)
d. Photoreceptors can increase GA synthesis to repress growth-suppressor DELLA
3.
b. detection of blue light leads to PHOT1 autophosphorylation, dephosphorylation of NPH3 and removal of PIN3 from membrane on illuminated side
c. changing TIR1 transcript levels in different light, regulating ability to detect and perceive auxin
Hypocotyl photomorphism
4. Activation of ARF7/19 to bind to ARE in SAUR19
5. Expression of SAUR19 leads to inhibition of PP2C, increasing Pi of the proton pump (AHA2) = activation
6. Acidification and cell wall remodelling in the epidermis
187
Describe the process of apical hook opening
Auxin inhibits apical hook growth
- This is due to PP2C preventing AHA2 acidification and PP2C is activated by ARF7, and because it acts in a different area has a different effect
OPENING
- Occurs when light depletes auxin
188
List morning, day, afternoon and evening phase components
Morning: CCA1, LHY
Day: PRR9 and 7
Afternoon: RVE8 (activate ELF + morning)
Evening: TOC1, EC (LUX + ELF3 + ELF4)
189
What is the role of Deetiolated 1 (DET1)?
Helps CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1
DET1 acts a chromatin remodeller, altering gene expression
DET degrades PIF4
190
Explain how CCA1 and TOC1 can undergo post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation
CCA1- changed by alternative splicing (post-transcriptional)
CCA1α generates a fill reamcd through, CCA1β generates a truncated protein. With CCA1α being better for a cold stress response
Early morning CCA1α is formed and is functional, as the day progresses it gets warmer and CCA1β is formed that competes for heteromer formation with LHY
TOC1- can be targeted for ubiquititation by ZTL in blue light
191
What is the metabolic day length measurement (MDLM) system and its relevance to the circadian cycle and response to certain stimuli?
System that measures photosynthetic period, and not just photoperiod.
- Has an effect on photoperiodic growth and causes seasonal expression of genes
- MLDM contributes to entrainment, helping plants recognise time and transition between phases, such as flowering
- Sugar sensing signals that are important for MLDM are also clock gated, differing in their response in dark and light conditions
= LINK METABOLIC PROCESSES WITH CIRCADIAN REGULATION
192
How does day length regulate flowering?
CO-FT system
- CO is a TF that promotes the transcription of FT that promotes flowering
- CO protein is degraded in dark conditions by COP1, and COmRNA peaks in the latter half of the day
(repressed by (CYLCIN DOF FACTORs) CDFs in the morning)
- In long days, peak of transcript coincides with light, so FT increases and so does flowering.
- However, in short days, peak of CO transcript occurs when it's dark so the protein is degraded and unable to promote FT
(ELF3 also regulates FLC, suppressing flowering in a CO-independent system)
193
Describe the relationship between PIFs and PRRs
TOC1/ PRR1 cooperates with EC to suppress PIF4 and PIF5
- PRR9/7/5 found to directly interact with PIFs
- Regulating expression throughout the 24hrs
194
What are the responses of plants to different cold treatments? Cold shock, gradual chilling and non-damaging cold
Cold shock - Stunted growth, inhibition of photosynthesis and formation of lesions
Gradual chilling - hardening of leaves
Non-damaging exposure - allows for acclimatisation, and increased production of ABA
195
How plants distinguish between symbiosis and immunity signalling? (6)
1. ROS production - greater ROS in immunity, although transient in symbiosis
2. Nutrient status - low nutrient status = suppressed immune system
3. Signalling molecule - LCOs v chitin
4. Signalling receptor - different downstream signalling for different effectors
5. Location of Ca2+ spike - symbiosis nuclear, immunity cytoplasmic
6. Hormonal crosstalk - JA and SA for immunity, cytokinin for symbisis
196
What is an example of an engineered light-gated channel in plants?
BLINK1 - formed by fusing LOV2Jα domain from Avena sativa to a virus K+ channel
- Introduced into guard cells of Arabidopsis to see the effect on stomatal conductance
- Increase rate of stomatal closure and aperture, improving water use efficiency and increasing biomass
- Calculated by measuring membrane potential (patch clamp) and stomatal conductance (gas exchange)
Papanatsiou et al. 2019
197
What is the triple response of the hypocotyl shoot to soil compaction? Why is it important? And how is it achieved?
- inhibit hypocotyl and root elongation
- more pronounced curved apical hook
- radial swelling of hypocotyl
= Protect the shoot meristem from mechanical damage when pushing up through the soil
1. Increase in ethylene production
2. Activates EIN3/EIL1
Triggers
3a. PIF3 to control formation of chlorophyll, to prevent photo-oxidation when breaching the surface
3b. Regulation of GROWTH by Ethylene Responsive Factor (ERF1)
+ Increase in ethylene and associated gene expression in deeper soil (LUC line monitoring receptor expression)
+ Separate signalling pathways as pif3 had failed to green, but had normal growth
(Zhong et al., 2014)
198
How does the evolution auxin signalling pathway generated both specificity and diversity?
Evolutionary conserved components found in algae (charophytes)
Specificity (5)
- Different DNA promoter binding affinities for different ARFs
- Retain specificity of binding at the DNA binding domain that is highly conserved
- Spatial and temporal expression specific to response (also generates diversity) e.g. ARF6/7/8 in hypocotyl and ARF7/19 for lateral root (pericycle)
- Different half lives of Aux/IAA (IAA17shorter ~10min, while IAA31 relatively stable)
- Specificity is generated by the heterodimer formations and the interactions between all parts of the signalling complex meaning auxin can regulate many physiological factors.
Diversity (5)
- Specialisation to have different function iaa17 mutant had no root hair, while iaa3 had long root hair
- Different combinations of ARFs and Aux/IAAs
- Many different ARFs and Aux/IAAs in higher order plants (A.thaliana comparison to Merchantia)
- TIR/AFB evolution targetting Aux/IAA allows for dose-dependent response to auxin
- ARFs can work with receptors from other hormones = crosstalk
199
How is gravitropism and phototropism signal similar?
PIN relocalisation resulting in auxin gradients (due to gravitropism and phototropism)
1. Auxin increase removes Aux/IAA inhibition of ARF7/19
2. ARF7/19 bind to promoter of SAUR19
3. Asymmetric SAUR19 leads to growth response
4. SAUR19 inhibits PP2C.D from de-Pi AHA2 (H+ pump)
5. Increase Pi of AHA2 = acidification and membrane remodelling
Wang et al., 2020
200
How is thermomorphogenesis and phototropism interlinked?
1. Regulation of HY5
- Increase in HY5 transcript in cold conditions, even at night which suppresses growth by suppressing PIF4
2. Direct regulation of PIFs by photoreceptors such as PHYB
3. UVR8 binding to COP1 to inhibit its degradation of HY5 resulting in photomorphogenesis
201
What is depolarisation and an example of it?
When the inside of the cell becomes more positive, with respect to the outside of the cell
- E.g. stomatal closure as a result of Ca2+ moving into guard cell
202
What evidence is there for the function of OST1 in ABA-induced stomatal closure?
1. Mutants in OST1 had constantly open stomata so cooler leaves
2. In vitro kinase activity assay to show that it autophosphorylates
203
How are different calcium signatures generated?
1. Spatial differences
- Microdomains (local plume of Ca2+ generated due to low diffusion of Ca2+), localisation of downstream signalling also. Different processes in different regions of the cell (Hdedeh et al., 2024)
- compartmental to different organelles
- regulation of channel localisation, CNGC15 nucleus and PM (nitrate NRT1.1, Wang
2. Temporal
- Delayed or rapid response, sustained or transient
- Oscillations
3. Downstream decoders - generate a unique response
204
What are some uses for chronoculture?
Found that traditional breeding practices have already selected for variation in circadian genes, for example flowering time
1. Application of herbicide, can be timed to the clock to peak with greatest uptake
2. Biotic associations - lhy mutants in Medicago had reduced nodule formation
3. Response to climate change - ELF3 found to influence flowering time, also important for improving WUE
4. Indoor farming - optimising growth and production by controlling the photoperiod that plants are exposed to in indoor, potentially vertical farming structures
205
In what conditions is miR2111 expression highest?
When rhizobia are present
- Low phosphate conditions
- Varying nitrate conditions, may be low in nitrate rich conditions to suppress nodulation and promote direct uptake
Highest during nodulation as it suppresses TML
206
Describe the importance of the circadian clock
1. Around 1/3 of the A.thaliana genome is regulated by the circadian clock
2. Important for anticipation for growth, herbivory
- loopers response, photomorphogenic phenotype
3. Entrainment of light and temperature helps plants respond to seasonal changes
207
How are seasonal changes entrained into the circadian clock?
Cryptochromes that detect blue light
- Regulate COP1 that regulates ELF3 and GI
ELF3 - important light gating component that reduces sensitivity to light around dusk
- Experiments have shown that these interact in vivo
Yu et al., 2008
208
How might climate change affect the circadian clock?
1. Increase in temperatures e.g. warmer in short day long nights which is expected to be colder may mis-regulate ELF3, and EC in general
2. Phase shifts in the expression of CCA1/LHY as a result of lack of EC
3. Changes in CCA1 expression, CCA1β favoured in warmer conditions but is truncated and non-functional
No-effect = slight change has no effect due to temperature compensation
209
What are some other roles of OST1/ SnRK2.6 and PP2C?
OST1/SnRK2.6
1. Pi of ABFs that bind to ABRE to activate response to stresses such as salinity and drought
- Four A.thaliana AREB/ABFs were found such as AREB1/ABF2, AREB2/ABF4, ABF3 and a functional homologue ABF1 (Yoshida et al., 2014)
2. Pi and activation of ABA biosynthesis genes such as NCED3
PP2C
- Negative feedback loop by de-Pi
210
Where are BICAT 1/2 located? What are their roles?
BICAT 1 - thylakoid membrane (Ca2+/H+ antiporter)
- Mutant has overshoot of stromal Ca2+, responsible for bchinding Ca2+ back into the thylakoid
BICAT 2 - chloroplast membrane
- is suggested to be responsible for bringing Ca2+ from the cytosol into the stroma, so mutant has reduced stromal Ca2+
!!! Discrepancy with YC3.6 data that suggests Ca2+ is generated from thylakoid not stroma (Loro et al., 2016)
Chelating extracellular altered cytosolic signals involved in light dark transitions but not basal cytosolic levels. However, stromal Ca2+ levels were not altered in the process, suggesting independence.
211
Describe the changes in CONSTANS levels
Induces FT in leaves
- Regulated transcriptionally and post-translationally
CO mRNA accumulates during the day but repressed by (CYLCIN DOF FACTORs) CDFs in the morning
- FKF1 and GI relieve the repression in the evening
- CO protein targeted by COP1
= CO accumulates only in long day
Sawa et al., 2007
212
What is myristoylation?
Lipidation modification that results in cell binding to the membrane
- can be done to CDPKs, to anchor them to the membrane for localisation
= spatial specificity
e.g. NDR1 is myristoylated to the plasma membrane for its role in immunity signalling and activation of MAPK
213
What is a ratiometric analysis?
Analysis that involves the production of two signals in different calcium conditions, so that a quantitative measure for calcium concentration can be taken. Independent on indicator concentration or excitation intensity
214
How does the circadian clock feed into the BAP-D module?
1. EC represses PIFs
2. HY5 negatively regulates BZR1
3. In the dark COP1 promotes degradation of BZR1-pi
4. In blue light, CRY1 can bind PIF4 and BZR1 to prevent DNA binding activity
215
What GLR channel contributes to Ca2+ changes in the pollen tube?
- GLR3.3 requires activation
- Localisation using CNIH4
216
Describe some roles for RBOH proteins
NADPH oxidases (transfers e- from NADPH to oxygen to produce ROS)
Binds Ca2+ via EF hands
RBOHF - guard cell, cause Ca2+ and depolarisation for stomatal closure
RBOHH + RBOHJ - pollen and pollen tube for polar growth
217
How do plants sense and integrate temperature signals?
- temperature changes throughout the day so the circadian clock requires a degree of compensation
1. Photosensors also thermosensors
- ELF3 containing prion-like domain in some species for thermosensing. Undergoes phase transition and forms speckles
-CRY undergo thermal reversion like PHYs
-reversion of UVR8 to dimer in the dark requires RUP which is influenced by temp
- PhyB - unable to prevent PIF4/7 in warmer temp
++ hairpin in 5'UTR in the PIF7 gene undergoes changes in high temp increasing transcription
2. Temperature compensation in CC
- CCA1 alternative splicing in warm temperatures
- Seasonal changes influenced by ELF3 and EC formation in different temperatures
3. Hormone regulation
- HSP90 for hypocotyl growth in high temp, through COP1 binding at higher temp -> degradation of ELF3 for PIF4 activation Zeng et al., 2023
- PIF4 promoted auxin production at higher temps
- ABA triggered in cold stress for stomatal closure
4. Vernalisation
- cold results in activation of FCA/FY and COOLAIR or COLDAIR to alter epigenetic pattern, regulating plant development (FLC)
- co-ordinates with flowering from the availability of light via CONSTANS
218
What drives voltage change in ABA-mediated stomatal closure?
1. Initially ABA inhibits AHA1 (for H+ export) that results in depolarisation
2. Activation of GORK1 and SLAC1, further depolarisation
3. Changes also driven by influx of Ca2+ through other channel pathway
219
What experiments have been done that analyse the transition from light to dark(low-blue light)?
- results in a stromal calcium spike
- found to be independent of extracellular Ca2+ concentrations, by chelation of Ca2+.
- Still allowed the Ca2+ spike, suggesting that Ca2+ came from thylakoid store
= Monitored using YC3.6 and YC4.6 targeted to the stroma, used two to with different affinities to cover greater ranges
Loro et al., 2016
220
What are some examples in which CAMELEONs have been used?
Loro et al., 2016
- transition from light to dark resulting in Ca2+ spike in the stroma. Likely due to thylakoid release. Used YC3.6 and YC4.6 to cover larger Ca2+ ranges due to the different affinities
Choi et al., 2014
- Analysis of salt stress response, causing a Ca2+ influx. Ca2+ monitoring achieved by YCNano-65 that has greater energy transfer efficiency relative to YC3.5. (Nagai et al., initially formed the YCNano-65)
Sieberer et al., 2009
- used YC2.1 to show nuclear Ca2+ oscillations in response to addition of purified Nod and LCO factors
Thor et al., 2020
- analysis of OSCA1.3 in Ca2+ signalling in response to flg22 detection used YC3.6
221
How is nitrate and phosphate signalling integrated?
1. NLA and PHO2 regulating PHTs via E3 and E2 Ubiquitin action
2. SPX4 in P and N response
- N response NRT1.1 can complex with NBIP1 and degrade SPX4, allowing OsNLP3 (homolog of AtNLP7) to localise in nucleus (Hu et al.,)
222
What is the role of Zn in Nitrate uptake?
Anti-correlated, addition of Zn can lead to greater uptake of nitrate by NRT1.1 activation
Pan et al., 2020
- vice versa, inhibition of NRT1.1 was found to reduce Zn uptake
223
What is the plant response to canopy cover shading?
- Whole plant shading rather than partial shading, meaning elongation doesn't provide a benefit
DIFFERENCES: different red:far red and changes in photosynthetically active radiation
= Skotomorphogenic output
224
How have phytochromes been suggested to regulate PIFs?
Phytochromes may have kinase activity, targeting PIFs
Shin et al., 2016
225
What are the potential effects of climate change on the clock?
Higher and more extreme temperatures in the absence of changing light conditions may disrupt temperature entrainment and clock function in general.
= suggested by modelling
1. Phase shifts in the expression of CCA1/LHY as a result of lack of EC
2. Changes in CCA1 expression, CCA1β favoured in warmer conditions but is truncated and non-functional
No-effect = slight change has no effect due to temperature compensation
+ premature flowering
- Natural variation in clock components differ geographically already, forced changes in distribution could lead to need for adaptation/ development of circadian clock Oravec + Greenham 2022
226
How do microdomains generate signal specificity?
- Localised plume of Ca2+ increase that is spatially specific due to the low diffusion rate of Ca2+
- Often also recruitment of downstream signalling components nearby
- Changes to protein organisation, for example fusion to the membrane allows for specific interactions that wouldn't have been possible e.g. restriction to rotation of protein
227
What is the role and evidence for MCA8?
MCA8 - SERCA type Ca2+ ATPase that moves Ca2+ out of the nucleus
- controlling symbiotic signalling, predominantly found in the roots
Capoen et al., 2011
228
What Ca2+ channel localises to the PM in response to nitrate signalling?
CNGC15 which associates with NRT1.1 at the membrane
- Modification to CNGC15 led to the loss of nitrate-induced Ca2+ channel
Wang et al., 2021
229
How does green light effect hypocotyl development?
Promotes growth (rare unlike other wavelengths)
IMPORTANCE: Green leaves reflect a lot of green light, so this environment is characteristic of shading
- Promoting BES1 DNA binding promoting hypocotyl elongation
- Persistence in photoreceptor mutants, suggest other unknown photoreceptors are present
! Previously difficult to assess due to commercial greenlight LEDs emitting other wavelengths!
Hao et al., 2023
230
How is TPC1 voltage gated? How does it sense
VSD2 domain (opposite to KAT1)
'up' = active
'down' = inactive
(How much within the lipid bilayer)
Part II
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