Measurement

Question 1

3 Dimensional Quantities (That Can Be Measured): Hint-RTT

Answer 1

Repeatability
Temporal Extent
Temporal Locus

Question 2

Repeatability AKA:

3 Types of Measures: Hint- CRC

Answer 2

Countability

Count, Rate & Celeration

Question 3

Add up the behaviors or items.

• On its own is not enough information to make decisions regarding behavior change programs.
• Most useful when observation time is constant across observations.

Answer 3

Count

Question 4

Add up the behaviors or items over time. (count/time)

• AKA: Frequency
• Used when you are recording free operants (behaviors that have discrete beginning and ending points).
• Reported as count: per sec, min, day, session, week, month or year

Answer 4

Rate

Question 5

Count per unit of time/time (Frequency/time).

• Measure of how rates of response change over time.
• Can mean accelerate (responding is faster over time) or decelerate (responding slower over time).
• A minimum of 7 measures is recommended for ________.
• Response rate=X axis & Time in days=Y axis

Answer 5

Celeration

Question 6

Celeration Trend Line

Answer 6

A straight line drawn through the graphed data representing the direction representing the direction and degree of the trend.

Question 7

When the DURATION of the behavior can be measured.

Every instance of behavior occur during some amount of time.

Answer 7

Temporal Extent

Question 8

The only type of Temporal Extent measurement:

Answer 8

Duration

Question 9

The amount of time in which a behavior occurs.

-Use when you want to measure the amount of time of a behavior; for behaviors that occur for too long or too short a period of time; or at high rate behaviors.

Answer 9

Duration

Question 10

2 Methods for Calculating Duration:

Answer 10

1. ) Total Duration Per Session

2. ) Duration Per Occurrence

Question 11

Cumulative amount of time a person engages in the target behavior in the total session.

To calculate: Add up all the instances of duration for the target behavior that was taken during the session; the total will give you _________________.

Answer 11

Total Duration Per Session

Question 12

Duration of time that each instance of the behavior occurs.

Recording each instance of the target behavior.

Answer 12

Duration Per Occurrence

Question 13

Measuring the TIME at which behavior occur.

LOCUS=POINT IN TIME

Examines when an instance of behavior occurs with respect to other events.

2 Types: Response Latency & Interresponse Time

Answer 13

Temporal Locus

Question 14

Time between onset of a stimulus and initiation of a response.

• Should be used when you want to measure how much time occurs between an opportunity to emit a behavior and when the behavior is initiated.

Answer 14

Response Latency (AKA: Latency)

Question 15

Amount of time that elapses between 2 consecutive instances of a response class.

• Should be used when time between responses is important.
• Often reported by mean or median and range of IRTs per session.
• Functionally related to rate of response.

Answer 15

Interresponse Time (IRT)

Question 16

2 Derivative (based on another source) Measures:

Answer 16

1. ) Percentage

2. ) Trials-to-Criterion

Question 17

RATIO: formed by combining the same dimensional quantities, such as count.

Expresses the proportional quantity of some event in terms of the number of times the event occurred per 100 opportunities that the event could have occurred.

Recommended minimum observation intervals or response opportunities = 30!!!!

It is not correct to claim improvement over 100% occurred.

Answer 17

Percentage

Question 18

• Used when you want to document the percentage of correct responses.
• Percentage does NOT have a dimensional value.
• Percentage imposes lower and upper limits on the data.
• You cannot use percentage to record proficiency or fluency.

Answer 18

Advantages and Disadvantages of Percentage

Question 19

A measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance criteria.

Can use: Count, rate, duration and latency measures to determine: ____________________

Answer 19

Trials-to-Criterion

Question 20

Use __________________ for:

• Skills such as shoe typing, as each opportunity to tie the shoe can be considered a trial, and ___________ data are reported as the number of trials required for the learner to tie a shoe correctly.

Answer 20

Trials-to-Criterion

Question 21

Often used to compare the relative efficiency of two or more treatments.

Useful for assessing a learner’s increasing competence in acquiring a related class of concepts.

Answer 21

Trials-to-Criterion

Question 22

2 Definitional Measures:

Answer 22

1. Topography

2. Magnitude

Question 23

Form or shape of the response.

• Should be used when the form of the behavior is critical (e.g., gymnastics, basketball, dancing, etc.)
• Does not equal function. Can be different but still have the same function.

Answer 23

Topography

Question 24

Malleable dimension of behaviors

Answer 24

Responses of varying form are shaped and selected by their consequences.

Question 25

Force/intensity/severity of behavior. Certain responses need to be emitted at specific levels of intensity. AKA: force, intensity, severity

Answer 25

Magnitude

Question 26

Measurement conducted in a manner such that ALL instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period. Example: Event recording (i.e., rate/frequency, count) and timing (i.e., duration, IRT, latency).

Answer 26

Continuous Measurement Procedures

Question 27

Useful for behaviors that: - Are free operant - Have a discrete beginning and ending - Require minimal displacement of the organism in time/space - Can be emitted at any time - Do not require much time for completion

Answer 27

Advantages of Continuous Measurement Procedures

Question 28

Not useful for behaviors that: - Occur at high rates. - Are measured via discrete trials. - Occur for extended periods of time. - Are opportunity-based.

Answer 28

Disadvantages of Continuous Measurements Procedures

Question 29

Measurement conducted in a manner such that SOME instances of the response class of interest may NOT be detected. Example: Time sampling methods/interval recording methods (i.e., whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time sampling)

Answer 29

Discontinuous Measurement Procedures

Question 30

Useful for behaviors that: - Occur at high rates. - Occur for long durations of time. - Are measured via discrete trials. - Are measured via percentage.

Answer 30

Advantages of Discontinuous Measurement Procedures

Question 31

Not useful for behaviors that: - Are free operant. - It is important to obtain every occurrence of that behavior. - Require constant attending by observer.

Answer 31

Disadvantages of Discontinuous Measurement Procedures

Question 32

3 Procedures for Measuring Behavior: | HINT-ETT

Answer 32

1. Event Recording (continuous measurement) 2. Timing (continuous measurement) 3. Time Sampling (DIScontinuous measurement)

Question 33

Methods to record the number of times a response occurs. Devices used: Pencil & paper, wrist counters, hand tally, digital counters, masking tape, pennies, buttons, calculators, etc.

Answer 33

Event Recording

Question 34

- Fairly accurate method. - Simple to implement; you can do this while engaging in other activities. - Great to use with free operant (each response has a discrete beginning and end).

Answer 34

Advantages of Event Recording

Question 35

DO NOT USE WHEN: - Responses occur at very high rates (e.g., hand-flapping, etc.) continuous behavior (e.g., on task behavior, humming, etc.) and/or DTT data.

Answer 35

Disadvantages of Event Recording

Question 36

Methods used to measure: 1. Duration 2. Response Latency 3. Interresponse Time (IRT) - Timing device: Stopwatch

Answer 36

Timing

Question 37

AKA: Interval Recording; Discontinuous Measurement Systems - Variety of methods for recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time. - Gives us an approximation of the actual instances of behavior.

Answer 37

Time Sampling

Question 38

How to Design and Implement Time Sampling Procedures:

Answer 38

First, divide the observation period into equal intervals of time. Next, record the presence or absence of behavior within or at the end of each interval.

Question 39

Great for recording continuous and/or high rate behaviors.

Answer 39

Advantages of Time Sampling Procedures

Question 40

Do NOT use when you want to record certain important, but fairly infrequent behaviors.

Answer 40

Disadvantages of Time Sampling Procedures

Question 41

Behaviors that do NOT have a clear beginning and ending (i.e., they are NOT discrete) Counting each response or measuring its duration would be too hard. Ex. Cooperative Play, humming, shouting, sucking thumb, rocking back and forth; etc. USE DISCONTINUOUS MEASUREMENTS TO RECORD THESE BEHAVIORS

Answer 41

Continuous Behaviors

Question 42

3 Forms of Time Sampling: WPM

Answer 42

1. Whole Interval Recording 2. Partial Interval Recording 3. Momentary Time Sampling

Question 43

Underestimates the rate of a behavior.

Answer 43

Whole Interval Recording

Question 44

a. Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals. b. At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred throughout the interval. c. Reporting data: Always PERCENTAGE. You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred.

Answer 44

How to Design and Implement Whole Interval Recording

Question 45

Best for measuring a behavior you want to INCREASE (e.g., paying attention to teacher)

Answer 45

WHOLE INTERVAL RECORDING

Question 46

Not good to use when you want to decrease a behavior. | - Requires you to observe the behavior throughout the entire interval

Answer 46

Disadvantages of Whole Interval Recording

Question 47

Overestimates the rate of a behavior. | - Used to represent the PROPORTION (%) of the entire observation period that the behavior occurred

Answer 47

Partial Interval Recording

Question 48

a. Divide the observation period into series of brief time intervals. b. At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval. c. Reporting data: Always PERCENTAGE! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred.

Answer 48

How to Design & Implement Partial Interval Recording

Question 49

Over or Underestimates rate of behavior or neither. Used to estimate the proportion of the total observation period that the behavior occurred.

Answer 49

Momentary Time Sampling

Question 50

a. Divide the observation period into series of brief time intervals. b. At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at the end if that time interval only. c. Reporting Data: Always PERCENTAGE. You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred.

Answer 50

How to Design and Implement Momentary Time Sampling

Question 51

Advantage: You do NOT have to continuously measure throughout the entire interval (as you have to in whole and partial interval interval recordings) Disadvantage: Much of the behavior of interest is missed or unaccounted. To avoid this problem, you should keep the intervals short and observe the target behavior frequently.

Answer 51

Advantages and Disadvantages of Momentary Time Sampling

Question 52

AKA: PLACHECK - For GROUPS - A variation of Momentary Time Sampling

Answer 52

Planned Activity Check

Question 53

Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring the effects the behavior produced on the environment. A change in the environment produced by a behavior that lasts long enough for measurement to take place. Natural or contrived outcomes. AKA: Outcome Recording

Answer 53

Permanent Product

Question 54

Measurement takes place after behavior has occurred.

Answer 54

Ex post facto measurement

Question 55

Event Recording, Timing, and Time Sampling can be applied to measurement by __________ _________.

Answer 55

Permanent Product

Question 56

- Practitioner is free to do other tasks. - Makes inconveniently timed behaviors easier to observe (e.g., sleeping patterns, waking up behavior). - Measurement may be more accurate, complete, and continuous. - Facilitates data collection for IOA and treatment integrity. - Enables data collection for behaviors with multiple response classes. - Reduces any potential reactivity (i.e., client's temporary adjustment away from typical performance in response to an observer) because the observer does not have to sit and watch the client engage in the target behavior, but can simply look at the permanent product after the client has completed the required work.

Answer 56

Advantages for you Permanent Product

Question 57

The responses accountable for producing a particular outcome may vary.

Answer 57

Disadvantage for using Permanent Product

Question 58

Behaviors that do NOT have a direct effect on the environment can be measured by permanent product through videotape, photographs, audiotapes, etc. These are ______ ________ _________.

Answer 58

Contrived Permanent Product

Question 59

Some classes of a behavior lend themselves to one system of recording; others to another. - ETHICS DEVIL WARN YOU: You should select a way to record data that provides the most ethical and valid depiction of the target behavior. If the behavior results in tangible product then permanent product is good to use. If the behavior is transitory (i.e., fleeting), then use event recording or time sampling procedures.

Answer 59

Selecting the Right Measurement System to Obtain Representative Data Given the Dimensions of the Behavior

Question 60

ETHICS DEVIL WARN YOU: You should always be mindful of the VALIDITY ( the method measures what it is suppose to measure) of your data, you have to be very careful in planning out your observation and recording periods. WHY? - Because you want to truly capture what the target behavior really look like when you conduct your data collection.

Answer 60

Scheduling Observation and Recording Periods

Question 61

- The duration of time you should record data in baseline and intervention phases often depends on the data that you are recording. - You can continue to assess performance until the data become stable according to your pre-specified definition of stability.

Answer 61

Things to Consider with Duration of Recording Phases

Question 62

Times of day, days of the week, weather conditions, task assignments, physical or social surroundings, MOs and a myriad of other variables that may threaten to influence the data. Make certain that these elements are evenly distributed throughout baseline, intervention, and follow-up phases. - If these variables are NOT controlled, the you cannot confidently interpret your data results.

Answer 62

Elements to Consider About Scheduling Observation and Recording Periods

Question 63

- How frequently should you record data and under what conditions. - If you want to increase/decrease rate of behavior, use your validly defined objectives across standard time periods. - If you want to shape new behaviors or teach clients to differentiate one stimulus from another, use moment-to-moment or trial-to-trial data recording.

Answer 63

Things to Consider with Frequency of Recording

Question 64

Data

Answer 64

Primary material to guide and evaluate behavioral work.

Question 65

3 Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement: VAR

Answer 65

1. Validity 2. Accuracy 3. Reliability

Question 66

Relevant Dimension

Answer 66

Validity

Question 67

3 Threats to Validity: IMM

Answer 67

1. Indirect Measurement 2. Measuring Wrong Dimension 3. Measurement Artifact

Question 68

True Value

Answer 68

Accuracy

Question 69

Human Error: a. Poorly designed measurement system; b. Inadequate Observer Training; Expectations of what data should look like: Observer drift, Measurement Bias, Observer Reactivity

Answer 69

Threats to Accuracy & Reliability

Question 70

Accuracy Related Term:

Answer 70

Calibration

Question 71

Same results over and over.

Answer 71

Reliability

Question 72

Reliability related term:

Answer 72

IOA

Question 73

DIRECTLY measuring socially significant target behavior. Measuring DIMENSION of the target behavior relevant to the question or concern about the behavior. Ensuring that the data are representative of the behavior's occurrence under conditions during TIMES that are most relevant to the concern about the behavior.

Answer 73

3 Elements of Validity

Question 74

Measurement has __________ when it yields data that are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for measuring it.

Answer 74

VALIDITY

Question 75

3 Causes of Measurement Artifacts:

Answer 75

1. Discontinuous Measurement: Measurement in which some instances of the response class are NOT detected. 2. Poorly Scheduled Measurement Periods: Recording data on the behavior at a time that does not properly depict the behavior. 3. Insensitive &/or Limiting Measurement Scales: A scale that imposes an artificial floor or ceiling on performance.

Question 76

The extent to which the OBSERVED VALUE (i.e., quantitative label) matches the TRUE VALUE of an event. If measurement is not VALID, ________ is moot (doubtful).

Answer 76

Accuracy

Question 77

Requires special or extraordinary precautions that ensure that all possible sources of error have been removed.

Answer 77

True Value

Question 78

When true values CANNOT be established, researchers must rely on RELIABILITY assessments and measure of interobserver agreement (IOA) to evaluate the quality of their data.

Answer 78

How to Establish True Values for Accuracy Measures

Question 79

The extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same value when brought into REPEATED contact with the same state of nature. - Same results repeatedly; consistent measurement. - Poor _______ reveals problems with accuracy and validity.

Answer 79

Reliability

Question 80

The closer the values obtained by repeated measurement, the more _______ they are. Yet, even if the measures are found to be _______, that doesn't necessarily mean they will also be valid.

Answer 80

Reliable

Question 81

- Difficult and cumbersome measurement systems. - Number of participants to observe, number of behaviors to record, duration of observation period, and/or duration of observation intervals. - Simplified systems minimize errors

Answer 81

Poorly Designed Measurement Systems

Question 82

Observers need explicit and systematic training: 1. Select observers carefully. 2. Train observers to a standard of competency. 3. Provide ongoing training to minimize observer drift.

Answer 82

Inadequate Observer Training

Question 83

When observers unknowingly alter the way they measure a behavior. Occurs when observers have a shift in how they interpret the definitions of the target behavior. The target behavior definitions changes over time.

Answer 83

Observer Drift

Question 84

Retraining observers and providing detailed feedback on the accuracy and reliability of measurement.

Answer 84

How to minimize observer drift

Question 85

- Nonrandom measurement error. - Data that overestimates or underestimates the true value of an event. - Expectations that a target behavior will occur under certain conditions or change with a certain treatment can influence what is recorded and threaten the accuracy of measurement.

Answer 85

Measurement Bias

Question 86

Minimizes measurement bias. Trained observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/or experimental conditions in effect.

Answer 86

Naive Observers

Question 87

Measurement error resulting from an observer's knowledge that others are evaluating the data he/she reports. An observer can be influenced by how he/she anticipates another observer will record data.

Answer 87

Observer Reactivity

Question 88

How to minimize Measurement Bias:

Answer 88

Monitor and record data unobtrusively. Use videotaping for second observer to observe the same session.

Question 89

Interobserver Agreement (IOA)

Answer 89

Refers to the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same values after measuring the same events.

Question 90

Data is trustworthy and deserving of interpretation. - Reporting IOA increases _____________.

Answer 90

Believability

Question 91

1. Determines the competence of new observers. 2. Detects observer drift. 3. Increases or decreases confidence that the definition of the target behavior was clear and the measurement code was not too difficult. 4. Gives confidence that variability in data is not a function of which observers were on duty, therefore implying that changes in data actually reflect changes in behavior.

Answer 91

Benefits and Uses of IOA

Question 92

Three (3) Requisites for Obtaining Valid IOA:

Answer 92

1. Observers must use the SAME MEASUREMENT SYSTEM. 2. Observers must measure the SAME EVENT. 3. Observers must be INDEPENDENT.

Question 93

1. Total Count IOA 2. Mean Count-per-Interval IOA 3. Exact Count-per-Interval IOA 4. Trial-by-Trial IOA

Answer 93

Methods for Calculating Event Recording IOAs

Question 94

Methods for Calculating Timing/Duration IOAs

Answer 94

1. Total Duration IOA | 2. Mean Duration (or IRT)-per-Occurrence IOA

Question 95

1. Interval-by-Interval IOA 2. Scored Interval IOA 3. Unscored Interval IOA

Answer 95

Methods for Calculating Time Sampling/Interval Recording IOAs

Question 96

-Simplest method for event recording. - Percentage of agreement between the total number of responses recorded by 2 observers. - Calculated by dividing the smaller of the counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100. - Overestimates the extent of actual agreement. -Formula: Smaller #/Larger # X 100%

Answer 96

Total Count IOA

Question 97

-Dividing the observation period into a series of smaller counting times. - Observers record the number of occurrences of the behavior within each interval. - Calculate the agreement between the count of the 2 observers within each interval. - Use the agreements per interval as the basis for calculating the IOA for the total observation periods. - Formula: Int 1 IOA + Int 2 IOA + Int N IOA/ Total # of Intervals

Answer 97

Mean Count-Per-Interval IOA

Question 98

- The percentage of intervals in which 2 observers recorded the same count. - THE MOST STRICT EVENT RECORDING IOA METHOD. - Formula: # of Intervals of 100% IOA Agreement/ Total # of Intervals X 100%

Answer 98

Exact Count-Per-Interval IOA

Question 99

- The agreement between 2 observers who measured the occurrence or nonoccurrence of discrete trial behaviors for which the count for each trial, or response opportunity, can only be 0 or 1 can be calculated by comparing the observers' total counts or by comparing their counts on a trial-by-trial basis. - Formula: # of Trials of Agreement/Total # of Trials X 100%

Answer 99

Trial-BY-Trial IOA

Question 100

Computed by dividing the shorter of the 2 durations reported by the 2 observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100%. - Formula: Shorter Duration/Longer Duration X 100%

Answer 100

Total Duration IOA

Question 101

Used to calculate duration-per-occurrence data. - A more conservative and usually more meaningful assessment of IOA than total duration data. - Can be used to compute the mean latency-per-response IOA or mean IRT-per-response IOA. Formula: Duration IOA B1 + Duration IOA B2 + Duration IOA Bn/ n (# of) Behaviors with Duration IOA

Answer 101

Mean Duration (or IRT) - per - Occurrence IOA

Question 102

AKA: Point-by Point IOA; Point-by-Point Agreement Ratio - The primary observer's data for each interval is matched to the secondary observer's data for the same interval. - Likely to overestimate the actual agreement measuring behaviors that occur at very high rates or very low rates. - Subject to random or accidental agreement between observers. Formula: # of Intervals Both Recorders are in Agreement/ Total # of Intervals X 100%

Answer 102

Interval-By-Interval IOA

Question 103

- Only uses intervals in which both observers scored an occurrence of the behaviors to calculate the IOA. - Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behaviors that occur at very high or very low rates because it ignores the intervals in which measure by chance is highly likely. - Recommended for behaviors that occur at frequencies of approximately 30% of intervals or fewer to avoid overinflated and possibly misleading IOA measures. Formula: # of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Occurrence/ # of Intervals AT LEAST 1 Recorder Recorded Occurrence X 100%

Answer 103

Scored Interval IOA

Question 104

- Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behavior that occur at very high or very low rates. - Only considers intervals in which either or both observers recorded a non-occurrence of behavior. Formula: # of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Non-Occurrence/ # of Intervals AT LEAST 1 Recorder Recorded Non-Occurrence X 100%

Answer 104

Unscored Interval IOA

Question 105

What are good IOA scores?

Answer 105

Closer to 100%. No less than 80%

Question 106

How should IOA Be Reported?

Answer 106

1. Narrative Description: Most common and simplest. Describe the mean and range of agreement percentages. 2. Table 3. Graphic Display: The visual of the graph provides extent between agreement and existence of observer drift.

Question 107

How Often and When Should IOA be Obtained?

Answer 107

During each phase of a study and should be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, and observers. Should be obtained for a minimum of 20% of sessions.