Memory

Question 1

Sketch the multi-store model of memory

Answer 1

Question 2

Outline the sensory register from the multi-store model

Answer 2

• All environmental stimuli pass into the sensory register. This part of memory has 5 stores for each of the senses
• CODING - depends on the sense (visual in iconic, acoustic in echoic, etc.)
• DURATION - very brief, less than half a second
• CAPACITY - very high, e.g. over 100 million cells in one eye, each storing data

Question 3

Outline the transfer from sensory register to STM in the multi-store model

Answer 3

Information passes further into memory only if attention is paid to it (ATTENTION is the key process)

Question 4

Outline short term memory in the multi-store model

Answer 4

• Limited capacity store of temporary duration
• Coding = acoustic
• Duration = about 18 seconds unless information is rehearsed
• Capacity = between 5 and 9 (7+/-2) items before some forgetting occurs

Question 5

Outline the transfer from STM to LTM in the multi-store model

Answer 5

• Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we rehearse material
• We can keep information in STM as long as we rehearse it
• If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM

Question 6

Outline long term memory in the multi-store model

Answer 6

• Permanent memory store
• Coding = semantic
• Duration = up to a lifetime
• Capacity = potentially unlimited

Question 7

Outline retrieval from LTM in the multi-store model

Answer 7

When we want to recall information stored in LTM, it has to be transferred back to STM by a process called RETRIEVAL

Question 8

There is evidence from Baddeley showing STM and LTM are different. How is this a strength of the multi-store model?

Answer 8

• Baddeley found that we tend to mix up words that sound similar when using our STMs (so STM coding is acoustic)
• But we mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTMs (which shows LTM coding is semantic)
• This supports the multi-store model’s view that these two memory stores are separate and independent

Question 9

Jacobs and Peterson and Peterson’s studies show that the multi-store model may not be a valid model of how memory works in everyday life. How is this a weakness?

Answer 9

• The studies tend not to use everyday information (e.g. faces or names)
• They use digits/letters (Jacobs) or meaningless consonant syllables (Peterson and Peterson)
• Therefore, the multi-store model may not be a valid model of how memory works in everyday life where memory tends to involve meaningful information

Question 10

Shallice and Warrington found there may be more than one STM store. How is this a weakness of the multi-store model?

Answer 10

• Shallice and Warrington - KF had amnesia. STM recall for digits was poor when he heard them, but was much better when he read them
• Other studies confirm there may also be a separate STM store for non-verbal sounds (e.g. noises)
• Therefore, the MSM is wrong to claim there is just 1 STM store, processing different types of information

Question 11

According to Craik and Watkins, prolonged rehearsal is not needed for STM → LTM transfer. How is this a weakness of the multi-store model?

Answer 11

• Craik and Watkins argue there are 2 types of rehearsal called maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
• MAINTENANCE (amount of rehearsal) is the one described in the multi-store model
• ELABORATIVE is needed for long term storage. This occurs when you link information to your existing knowledge, or think about its meaning
• This suggests the MSM doesn’t fully explain how long-term storage is achieved

Question 12

The multi-store model is a bygone model. How is this a weakness?

Answer 12

• The MSM was useful at explaining a lot of evidence at the time (e.g. differences between STM and LTM)
• HOWEVER, it’s become clear that the MSM can’t account for many research findings (e.g. amnesia) and oversimplifies the nature of STM, LTM and rehearsal
• Therefore, the MSM was a good starting point for developing more valid models of memory that explain the research evidence better

Question 13

Sketch the working memory model

Answer 13

Question 14

Outline the central executive from the working memory model

Answer 14

• Supervisory role - monitors incoming data, directs attention and allocates slave systems to tasks
• Very limited storage capacity

Question 15

Outline the phonological loop from the working memory model

Answer 15

• Deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which the information arrives. It is subdivided into :
• PHONOLOGICAL STORE - stores the words you hear
• ARTICULATORY PROCESS - allows maintenance rehearsal
• Duration = 2 secs

Question 16

Outline the visuo-spatial sketchpad from the working memory model

Answer 16

• Stores visual and/or spatial information when required
• Logie divided the VSS into :
• VISUAL CACHE - stores visual data
• INNER SCRIBE - records arrangements of objects in visual field
• Capacity = 3-4 objects

Question 17

Outline the episodic buffer from the working memory model

Answer 17

• Temporary store for information
• Integrates visual, spatial and verbal information from other stores
• Maintains sense of time-sequencing - recording events that are happening
• Links to LTM
• Capacity = 4 chunks

Question 18

There is support from clinical studies (KF) for the working memory model. How is this a strength?

Answer 18

• Shallice and Warrington studied KF who had a brain injury
• His STM for AUDITORY information was poor (damaged PL) but he could process VISUAL information normally (intact VSS)
• This supports the WMM view that there are separate visual and acoustic memory stores

Question 19

How does KF challenge evidence from clinical studies of brain injury?

Answer 19

• KF may have had other impairments which explained poor memory performance, apart from damage to his PL
• This challenged evidence from clinical studies of brain injury

Question 20

Baddeley’s dual task performance studies support the VSS. How is this a strength of the working memory model?

Answer 20

• Baddeley’s participants found it harder to carry out two visual tasks at the same time than a verbal and a visual task together (same for two visual tasks)
• This is because both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem (VSS). There is no competition with a visual and verbal task
• Therefore, there must be a separate slave system that processes visual input (VSS) and also a separate system for verbal processes (PL)

Question 21

According to Baddeley, there is a lack of clarity over the central executive. How is this a weakness of the working memory model?

Answer 21

• Baddeley said the CE was the most important but the least understood component of working memory
• There must be more to the CE than just being “attention”, e.g. it is made up of separate subcomponents
• Therefore, the CE is an unsatisfactory component and this challenges the integrity of the model

Question 22

Dual task studies challenge the validity of the working memory model. How is this a weakness?

Answer 22

• Dual task studies support the WMM because they show that there must be separate components processing visual (VSS) and verbal information (PL)
• HOWEVER, these studies are highly controlled and use tasks that are unlike everyday working memory tasks (e.g. recalling random sequences of letters)
• This challenges the validity of the model because it’s uncertain that working memory operates this way in everyday life

Question 23

Describe the “report everything” technique from the cognitive interview

Answer 23

• Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of an event, even if it seems irrelevant or the witness is not confident about it
• Seemingly trivial details could be important and may trigger other memories

Question 24

Describe the “reinstate the context” technique from the cognitive interview

Answer 24

• The witness returns to the crime scene in their mind and imagines the environment (e.g. the weather, what they could see, etc.) and their emotions
• This is based on context-dependent forgetting - cues from the context may trigger recall

Question 25

Describe the “reverse the order” technique from the cognitive interview

Answer 25

* Events are recalled in a different order (e.g. from end to beginning) * This prevents people basing their descriptions on expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events * It also prevents dishonesty (harder to lie if the account is reversed)

Question 26

Describe the “change perspective” technique from the cognitive interview

Answer 26

* Witnesses recall the event from other people's perspectives (how it would've appeared to another witness or to the perpetrator) * This prevents the influence of expectations and schema on recall * Schema are packages of information developed through experiences. They generate a framework for interpreting incoming information

Question 27

Outline the Enhanced Cognitive Interview

Answer 27

* Fisher et al. developed additional elements of the CI * This includes a focus on the social dynamics of the interaction (e.g. knowing when to establish and relinquish eye contact) * The ECI also includes ideas such as reducing the witness' anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open-ended questions

Question 28

Kohnken's meta-analysis has research support for the effectiveness of the Cognitive Interview. How is this a strength?

Answer 28

* A meta-analysis by Kohnken et al. combined data from 55 studies comparing CI and ECI with the standard police interview * The CI produced an average of 41% more correct information than the standard interview. Only 4 studies showed no difference * This shows that the CI is effective in helping witnesses recall information that is available but not accessible

Question 29

Kohnken found an increase in inaccurate information in the Enhanced Cognitive Interview. How is this a weakness?

Answer 29

* Kohnken also found increases in the amount of inaccurate information, especially in the ECI (quantity over quality) * Therefore, police officers need to be very careful about how they treat eyewitness evidence from CIs / ECIs

Question 30

Milne and Bull found that some elements of the Cognitive Interview are more useful than others. How is this a weakness of the Cognitive Interview?

Answer 30

* Milne and Bull found that each individual technique of the CI alone produced more information than the standard police interview * But they also found combining REPORT EVERYTHING and REINSTATE THE CONTEXT produced better recall than any other technique individually or combined * This casts doubt on the credibility of the overall CI because some of the techniques are less effective than the others

Question 31

The Cognitive Interview is time-consuming. How is this a weakness?

Answer 31

* Police are reluctant to use the CI because it takes more time than the standard police interview (e.g. to establish rapport and allow the witness to relax) * The CI also requires special training but many forces do not have the resources to provide more than a few hours' training (Kebbell and Wagstaff) * This suggests that the complete CI is not realistic for police officers to use and it might be better to focus on just a few key elements

Question 32

Police use variations of the Cognitive Interview. How is this a strength?

Answer 32

* Police forces take a “pick and mix” approach in practice which makes it hard to compare effectiveness in studies * HOWEVER, this approach make the CI more FLEXIBLE because the police forces (or individuals) evolve their own approaches depending on what they think works best * This variation is a benefit of the CI because it can be adapted to different situations, increasing its credibility for officers, though not for empirical research