1
Q
Describe Baddeley’s experiment into coding in memory?
A
- He gave 4 different lists of words to 4 different participants; acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar
- He then tested their recall immediately after and 20 minutes after
2
Q
Explain baddeley’s results and conclusions into coding in memory?
A
- Participants recall was worse on acoustically similar words, when recalling from short term and semantically similar when recalling from long term
- Therefore, STM is coded acoustically, as it was harder to pick out specific acoustic information from STM, and LTM codes semantically
3
Q
What were the results of Jacobs study into digit span in terms of capacity of STM?
A
digit span: 9.3
letter span: 7.3
4
Q
What did Miller conclude was the capacity of STM in terms of chunking?
A
7 plus or minus 2
5
Q
What did Cowan conclude was the capacity of STM in terms of chunking?
A
4 plus or minus 1
6
Q
Describe peterson and peterson’s study on the duration of STM?
A
- Gave participants a consonant syllable and a 3 digit number
- they were told to count backwards from the number and in intervals of three were asked to stop and recall the consonant syllable
7
Q
Describe peterson and peterson’s results on the duration of STM?
A
- Recall after three seconds averaged 97%
- after 18 seconds averaged 3%
8
Q
Describe Bharick et al’s study into the duration of LTM?
A
- 392 participants aged 17-74
- tested on photo recognition and free recall of their graduating class
9
Q
Describe Bharick et al’s results into the duration of LTM?
A
Participants tested after 15 years of graduating
- photo recognition: 90%
- free recall: 60%
After 48 years
- photo recognition: 70%
- free recall: 30%
10
Q
What research supports the multi model store in terms of LTM and STM being separate stores?
A
Baddeley’s coding research
11
Q
Describe Sperling’s research into the duration of the sensory register?
A
- A screen with 12 letters and numbers flashed
- Participants were asked to either write down all the letters
- or a low, medium and high tone was played indicating which line to recall (4 letter/numbers)
12
Q
Describe Sperling’s results into the duration of the sensory register?
A
- when recalling all: 42%
- when recalling one line: 75%
- Because writing down took time less letters were recalled when having to recalling all 12
13
Q
What is maintenance rehearsal?
A
- Repeating information so it stays in our STM, if you rehearse it long enough may move to LTM
14
Q
Why is maintenance rehearsal a limitation of the MSM?
A
- It is not the only way to transfer information from short term to lomg term
- Craik and Watkins found that elaborative rehearsal is necessary for transferring information from STM to LTM
15
Q
How is STM being a unitary store in the MSM a limitation?
A
- There is evidence to show that there are separate store within STM
- Shallice and Warrington studied KF who suffered from amnesia, his STM when recalling from words said to him was poor, but when he could read them it was fine
16
Q
What three types of LTM did Tulving propose?
A
- episodic
- semantic
- procedural
17
Q
what are 3 features of episodic memory?
A
- Time stamped
- Include memories of all senses
- Take a conscious effort to recall
18
Q
what are 3 features of semantic memory?
A
- not time stamped
- memory of facts or concepts
- less vulnerable to distortion and forgettingthan episodic memory
19
Q
What are two features of procedural memory?
A
- Memory of actions or skills, so hard to explain
- Do not take a conscious effort to recall
20
Q
How does HM and Clive Wearing support Tulvings theory that there are different types of LTM?
A
- Both men’s episodic memory was severely impaired, but their procedural and semantic memories were intact
- Clive Wearing could still play piano, but couldn’t remember what he had done the day before before
21
Q
What was Sylvie Bellville et al. experiment?
A
- Based on a real world apllication of different types of LTM, research has shown that old people struggle to remember episodic memories but semantic and procedural memories can still be remembered
- Bellville set up a training class for older people to improve their memory
- When tested the group who went through training performed better than the control group
22
Q
What are the four subsystems of the working memory model?
A
- STM is not a unitary store:
- Central executive
- phonological loop
- visuo-spatial sketchpad
- episodic buffer
23
Q
What is the role of the CE?
A
- divides our limited attention to the different subdivisions in your STM
- small processing capacity
- doesn’t store information
24
Q
What are some features of the PL?
A
- 2 subdivisions:
- phonological store: stores the sounds you hear
- articulary process- maintains the order of the sounds that you heard
- capacity is thought to be 2 seconds worth of what you can hear
25
What are some features of the VSS?
- 2 subdivisions:
- visual cache: stores visual data
- inner scribe: stores spatial data
- capacity is thought to be three or four items
26
What are some features of the EB?
- integrates visual spatial and verbal information
- uses time sequencing
- relates the WMM to long term memory
27
How does Shallice and Warrington's study of KF support the WMM?
- He suffered from amnesia, his STM when recalling from words said to him was poor, but when he could read them it was fine
- Therefore his phonolgical loop was damaged but not his VSS
28
Describe Baddeley's experiment and results into dual task performance?
- When participants performed a visual and verbal task at the same time their performance was similar to when they performed the tasks individually
- But when both tasks were visual or verbal they performed much worse
29
WHat are the two types of interference with explanations?
Proactive:
- When previous memories interfere with the recall of newer memories
Retroactive:
- When new memories interfere with the recall of old memories
30
Describe Mcgeogh and Mcdonald's research and results into the effect of similarity on interference?
- Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they had 100% accuracy
- They were then split into 6 independent groups to learn a new list of words:
synonyms
antonyms
unrelated words
consonant syllables
3 digit numbers
control group (no list)
- The order of the above list is the worst to best recall
31
Describe Baddely and Hitch's experiment and results into interference in everyday life?
- Tested rugby players recall of the names of their opposing teams
- Players who had played the most games against different teama struggled most with the recall
32
Describe Tulving Ptoska's experiment and results into interference theory?
- Participants had to learn a list of words under a specific category which they were not told and were then tested , with recall at 70%, they were then given another list and tested, with every list recall declined
- But when they were given the category of each list as a cue and were tested on a ll the lists recall rose back up to 70%
33
What is Tulving's encoding specifity principle?
In order for a cue to be effective it must be present at learning and retreival.
If the cue is absent or different at retrieval some forgetting will occur
34
What are 3 examples of cues relating to retrieval failure?
- Context dependent - cues from your external environment
- State-dependent - cues from your physiological environment
- Meaningful link - An example would be mnemonics
35
Describe Baddeley and Goddens experiment into retrieval failure?
- Deep sea divers were asked to learn a list of words either underwater or on land, and then recall the list either underwater or on land
- The divers who learn and recalled in different contexts, on average recalled 40% less accurate than the divers in matching conditions
-An example context-dependent forgetting
36
Describe Carter and Cassady's experiment into retrieval failure?
- Participants who had hayfever were asked to learn a list of words while on antihestamine or not and then asked to recall while on the drug or not
- Participants who loearned and recalled in the same physiological condition performed better than the ones not
- This is an example of state-dependent forgetting
37
What do Eysneke and Keane argue about retrieval failure?
- It is the main reason for forgetting in LTM
38
Why do leading questions affect eye witness testimony?
- Response bias, the way a question is worded or even just the fact that it was asked can influence a persons answer
- substitution theory, which proposes that the wording of the leading question can change a participants memory
39
What were Loftus and Palmer's procedure and findings into leading questions?
- 45 participants watched a film clip of a car accident
- They were then asked questions, the critical question being how fast the car was going
- There were five different groups, using different verbs; contacted, bumped, hit , collided, smashed
- Participants were also asked if they saw smashed glass (there was none)
- The average speed estimate for the group with the word contacted was 31.8 mph, and for the word smashed 40.5
- Participants who had heard the word smashed were more likely to report they had seen glass than the word hit
40
Why does post-event discussion affect EWT?
- Memory contamination: Information from other people involved are combined with memory
- Memory conformity:
Gabbert et al. suggests that witnesses often go along with each other out of ISI or NSI
41
What were Gabbert et al.'s procedure and findings into post event discussion?
- Tested participants in pairs, both watched a clip but from different POVs
- They were then given an opportunity to talk about the crime with the other participant
- She found that 71% of participants recalled aspects that they had not seen
- A control group found that 0% of participants recalled anything that they had not seen
42
What was Clifasefi et al.'s procedure and findings into false memory?
- She used leading questions to implant the false memory that when the participant was younger they had gotten sick from drinking too much
- Later the participants completed a memory test in which a leading question was asked about when they got sick from drinking too much
- A significant number of participants recalled this false memory with some even saying that because of it they don't like certain alcoholic drinks
43
How does Hutherland and Hayne's research undermine the substitution theory?
- When asked misleading questions on a clip that participants had watched, recall was more accurate for central details than for peripheral, this is not something that the substitution explanation predicts
44
How does Skaberberg and Wright undermine the memory conformity theory?
- Participants were shown two identical clips of a crime, but in one clip the criminal's hair was dark brown and the other was light brown
- After participants talked to each other they filled in a questionaire
- When asked about his hair colour most participants answered medium brown, this suggest memory contamination rather than copnformity.
45
What did Bodner et al. find about about increasing accuracy of EWT?
- warning participants that any information from a co-witness is hearsay and therefore it's important that they only recall from their own memory, increased accuracy in EWT
46
Describe Johnson and Scott's procedure, findings into how anxiety affects EWT?
- Participants were told they were taking a part in a lab study and were waiting in a waiting room
- There were 2 conditions
1. Heard casual conversation in the room next to them and saw a man leave with grease on his hands
2. Heard an argument accompanied with the sound of breaking glass, a man left with a knife covered in blood
- Participants in condition 1 were able to identify the man accurately 49% of the time, but in condition 2 this dropped to 33%
47
What is a limitation of Johnson and Scott's experiment?
- Tunnel theory is an alternative explanation, as the participants would've been focused on the knife rather than the person
48
Describe Yuille and Cutshall procedures and findings into how anxiety can affect EWT?
- In vancouver Canada, there had been a shooting in a shop, the owner had shot the thief dead
- 5 months after the incident Yuille and Cutshall, interviewed 13 of the witnesses, based on details they were able to recall and how stressed they said they had felt at the crime scene
- They found that participants who had experienced more stress were 88% accurate, with participants who were less stressed being 75%
49
How does Yerkes and Dodson explain contradicting studies into the effects of anxiety on EWT?
- There is an optimum level of stress that produces the most accurate EWT, and when that level is passed accuracy drastically declines
50
What other studies support johnson and scott's experiment into anxiety affecting EWT?
- Valentine and Mesout
- Participants were offered a reduced entrance fee to enter london dungeon, they then encountered a specific actor who they were then tested on, they were also wearing wireless heart rate monitors to monitor their stress levels
- Findings: The high stress participants were less accurate, they could only identify the actor 17%
51
What is the mental reinstatment of original context technique in the cognitive interveiw and how does it improve EWT?
- WHen the witness is told to recall everything they can remember from the day of the crime, eg. weather
- This acts as emotional or contextual cues which may trigger recall to details about the crime
52
What is the report everything technique in the cognitive interveiw and how does it improve EWT?
- The interveiwee is toild to report everything from the crime even if its already known or feels irrelevant
- This could act as a cue for more memories of the event, as memories are inter connected
53
What is the change order technique in the cognitive interveiw and how does it improve EWT?
- The interveiwee is asked to recall the event backwards
- This disrupts their pre-existing schema of what they expect to happen
54
What is the change perspective technique in the cognitive interveiw and how does it improve EWT?
- intwerveiwee is asked to recall events from the perspective of someone else involved and what they would have seen
- This disrupts their pre-existing schema of what they expect to happen
55
Who developed the enhanced cognitive interveiw and what extra elements does it include?
- fisher et al.
limiting distractions
asking participants to talk slowly
open ended questions
eye contact
56
What does Kohnken et al. find about the CI in their meta analysis?
- Analysed 55 studies comparing the CI and a standard interveiw
- The CI increased accuracy by 41%
- however also increased inaccurate information
57
What did Milne and Bull find about the CI?
- Different combinations of the aspects of the CI can increase accuracy to different extents
- Report everything and reinstatement of context were the most effective
