1
Q
2 types of long term memory
A
-explicit
-implicit
2
Q
Types of explicit memory
A
-semantic memory
-episodic memory
3
Q
Types of implicit memory
A
-procedural memory
-classically conditioned memory
4
Q
Memory definition
A
process of encoding, storing and retrieving information acquired through learning
5
Q
memory is created by 3 core processes
A
-encoding= conversion of sensory info into usable form so it can be neurologically represented and stored in the brain
-storage= retention of the encoded information over time
-retrieval= recovery of stored information for use when needed
6
Q
Atkinson Shiffron multi store model of memory
A
-considers memory as a system with 3 distinct stores which interact to encode, store and retrieve info
7
Q
what 3 seperate stores of memory does the atkison shiffron multi store model of memory include
A
-sensory
-short term
-long term
8
Q
scientific method
A
representation of a concept, process or behaviour, oftern made to simplify something to understand
9
Q
Scientific theory
A
set of principles used to explain something or make predictions on cause and effect
10
Q
MSM process
A
Incoming sensory info
Sensory memory
-memory can be lost
attention
short term memory
-memory can be lost by being pushed out by new incoming info of fading over time
encoding
long term memory
retrieval (to short term memory)
11
Q
sensory memory
A
entry point for memory as all info stored must be detected by your senses
12
Q
Sensory memory details
A
-unlimited capacity (no limit)
-breif duration (0.2 to 4 seconds)
-not consiously aware of most senses
13
Q
2 examples of sensory registers
A
-visual information= iconic memory (you SEE an icon)
-Auditory information= Echoic memory ( Echo= is something you HEAR)
14
Q
echoic memory
A
all auditory info goes into the hearing sensory register in its o.g form
15
Q
storage duration for echoic memory
A
unlimited capacity
16
Q
storage duration for echoic memory
A
3-4 seconds
17
Q
Iconic memory
A
all sensory information is recieved through visual registers
18
Q
Iconic memory Storage capacity
A
unlimited
19
Q
Iconic memory storage duration
A
0.3-0.4 seconds
20
Q
short term memory
A
store of memory that holds a limited amount of information consiously being attended to and actively manipulated
21
Q
Memory from STM can come from what types of memory
A
-sensory if paid attention to
-long term memory that is retrieved can move from consious awareness and exist within STM
22
Q
STM in depth
A
-where all consious learning, percieving, feeling and thinking and other mental processes take place
23
Q
short term memory capcaity + duration
A
-limited (7 +/- 2 items)= number of items that can be worked on at a time
-limited duration 18-30 seconds)
24
Q
Process of rehersal
A
-updating, adding or changing info in some way
-this can occur by repeating it or linking it to other peices of info learnt
-helps to encode info from STM into long term memory where it can be stored
25
what is the reason for rehersal
-encode information from STM into long term memory
26
if not rehersed, waht could occur to the STM
-displacement= pushed out by new incoming info
-decay= face away on its own
27
chuncking
process of combining small peices of info into large groups of information (chuncks) to make them more meaningful
-chuncking increases capacity
28
long term memory
-can potentially hold an unlimited amount of information
-stored for a relitively perminant amount of time
-info is organised in diffrent parts of the brain
-not in consious awareness
29
explanitary power of model of memory
strengths:
-model distinguishes between diffrent stores involved in memory
-model displays a understanding of structure and process of memory
-model outlines each memory store has a diffrent capacity and duration
limitations:
-can be considered to be oversimplified
-ignores factors such as motivation and strategy which can facilitate learning and assist in encoding info from STM to LTM
-doesnt account for individual diffrences in memory processes, storage duration and capacity
30
Types of long term memory
1. Explicit
2. Implicit
31
Types of explicit memory
-semantic memory
-episodic memory
32
Types of implicit memory
-procedural memory
-classically conditioned memory
33
Explicit memory/ declaritive
-consiously retrieved
-type of long term memory
-can be voluntarily retrieved from long term memory and brought to consious awareness
-Declared= declared or stated to someone else
34
Examples of explicit memory/ declaritive
-remembering a friends birthday
-remembering where you parked a car
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what is semantic memory
-type of explicit memory
-consists of general knowledge/ facts
36
examples of semantic memory
-3x3=9
-dogs bark, cats meow
37
episodic memory
-types of explicit memory
-consists of personal experiences or events
-unique as they involve someones personal experiences
38
examples of episodic memory
-memory of getting your drivers liscense
-what you ate for dinner last night
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Implicit memory
-long term memory
-unconsiously retrieved
-involuntarily retrieved
40
Examples of implicit memory
-how to kick a soccer ball is implicit because demonstated by ability to exacute the technique, not the ability to explain it
-recalling how scared you were to see an aggressive dog: the fear of the dog is retrieved without consious effort
41
what is procedural memory
-type of implicit memory
-involves knowing how to carry out tasks facilitated by motor skills
42
example of procedural memory
-knowing how to; tie shoe laces, kick a ball, play guitar
43
classically conditioned memory
-type of implicit memory
-involuntary response, such as fear to a stimulus which has repeateadly been associated with emotionally arousing stimulus
-memory is emotionally charged
-are retrieved involunarily
-are reflexive (involuntary-think reflex
-may also involve the formation of an involuntary habit, e.g biting nails
44
Memory and brain structures
many brains structures involved
-most structures help encode and store memories
45
Hippocampus
-located in temporal lobe
-we have 2 (one in each hemisphere)
46
Role of the hippocampus
-*no storage*
-formation
-consilidation
-encoding
of explicit, semantic and epsiodic memory
47
people who have damadge to their hippocampus may experience
trouble forming new explicit memories
48
functions of the hippocampus can be disrupted by
-stress
-anxiety
-depression
-PTSD
-brain trauma
-any removal of part of the brain for treating epilepsy or alzheimers disease
49
what can shrink the hippocampus
-herpes
-encephalitis
50
what happens if hippocampus is damadged
-experience difficulty forming new long term explicit memories (anterograde amnesia)
51
amygdala's role
encoding emotional components of memories
52
location of the amygdala
-above the hippocampus
-in the temporal lobe
53
what is the detailed role of the amygdala
-fear centre
-responsible for encoding emotional components of classically conditioned and explicit memories
-involved in strengthening the encoding of emotional components of memories, allows them to be encoded in greater detail
54
neocortex
-stores explicit memories
-consists of 6 layers
-is part of cerebral cortex
55
Neocortex procedure
1. episodic and semantic memories converted into usable form in the hippocampus
2. they are stored in the neocotex to be retrieved for later use
56
Location of the neocortex
-converts most of the brains surface
-consists of four lobes
-memories are stored in paricular locations depending on the type of memory and where it was processed
-because long term memories are stored in diffrent locations in the neocotex, neural connections are able to be formed between diffrent memories
-this allows people to attach meaning to them
57
Basal ganglia
-involved in encoding and storing procedural memories and classically conditioned memories that are associated with unconsious habits, behaviours or procedures
58
location of the basal ganglia
-middle of brain and encodes and stores procedural memories via its connection with the cerebellum
-involved in encoding and storing responses learnt through classical conditioning
59
cerebellum
-located at base of brain
-encodes and stores implicit procedural memories
-stirage site for implicit procedural memories, due to the cerebellum being involved in the process of motor control, coordination and balance
60
autobiographical events
personally lived experiences
61
how to retrieve and become consiously aware of autobiographical events
must mentally travel back to this episodic memory
62
examples of auto biographical memories
-first day of school
-memories of a family vacation
-a birthday party
63
role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobipgraphical events
-stored in long term memory and retreived every time you think/ speak about them
64
retreival
process of assesing info that has been stored in long term memory and bringing it into our consious awareness in short term memory
65
brain structures involved in this
-hippocampus- retrieval of episodic memory
-frontal lobe
66
possible imagined futures
-episodic and semantic involved
-hypothetical experiences and situations an individual has the ability to create and conseptualise in their mind
67
examples of possible imagined futures
-imagining what your doing tommorow
-imagining how to present a speech
68
role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving possible imagined futures
-brain regions involved in retrieval of autobiographical experiences are activated when people constuct possible imagined futures
-researchers found when people experienced damadge to hippocampus they experienced difficulty remembering past events
69
what does the term neurodigenerative disease mean
disease charicterised by progressive loss of neurons in the brain (initally in the hippocampus)
70
Alzheimers disease
charicterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline
71
symptoms of alzhiemers disease
-personality changes
-change in mood and emotion
-frequently becoming confused or disorientated
72
how does alzheimers disease effect the brain
-primary lesions associate in the hippocampus
73
when can the diagnosis for alzheimers be made
can only be made post-mortem
74
-=[pwhat causes alzheimers disease
-amyloid plauges= fragments of protein beta-amyloid that accumulates into insoluble plagues that inhabit communication between neurons
-neurofibulary tangles= accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles in neurons, inhibating the transpotration of essential substances an eventually kills the neuron entirelly
75
how does alzheimers diease effect episodic and semantic memory
-may struggle to remember semantic and episodic components of personally experienced events
-lacks capacity to draw on episodic and semantic memories in order to plan and constuct new future scenarios
76
Aphantasia
phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery
77
mental imagery
visual representations and experiences of sensory information without the presence of sensory stimuli
-can vary in details and vividness
-unable to produce a mental image
-no known cause
78
aphantasia's link to memory
-when creating mental imagery, individuals use sensory info that has been oraganised in short term memory and then transferred to long term memory to recreate perceptual experiences
-perople wothout aphantasia are likely to draw on both episodic and semantic memory when creating mental imagery
-research shows people with aphantasia struggle to retrieve autobiographical events and construct possible imagined futures
-are able to apply non visual components of autobiographical mempries to future events
79
Acronym for Hippocampus
Hippos formally (formation), can (consolidte), code (encode), , seawater (semantic) episodes (episodic)
80
Acronym for amygdala
Amy (amygdala) , is (not apart) strong (strengthening) edna (encoding) and claire cardwell (classically conditioned memories) with (not apart) her ex (explicit)
81
Neocortex acronym
the neocortex likes to store episodes (episodic) and sees (semantic) the hippo (hippocampus)
82
Basal Ganglia
the basal ganglia likes to get drunk [(unconsious, reflexive) at ednas (encoding) with (not apart) steve (stores) pete (procedural) and claire cardwell ( classical conditioned memory)
83
Maintanance rehersal
-repeating information repetatively
-doesnt change or add anything to STM
84
Maintainance rehersal is affective at maintaining memory in which store
STM
85
Elaborative rehersal
-transferring info to long term mem
-organising new info already in storage in a meaningful way
86
elaborative rehersal is effecting at memories in what store
STM to LTM
87
neocortex acronym
Never (neocortex) is friends with sarah (semantic) and epiphany (episodic)
88
Cerebellum acronym
the cerebellum implies, (implicit) procedures (procedural) with steve (stores) and edna (encodes)
89
written traditions
-knowledge, stories and customs are preserved and shared through writing and reading
90
written components
anything from books and articles to visual arts
91
oral components
-songs
-dances
-storytelling
92
Mnemonics
-devices used to encode, store and retrieve information
-type of elaborative rehersal
-trying to convert something difficult to remember into something meaningful
93
How do Mnemonics work
-Organising and linking new information to fit in with existing information into the LTM
-Help to organise diffrent peices of info such as unrelated ite,s into more meaningful and cohersive whole
-can create strong retrieval pathways
94
Mnemonics in written cultures
-mnemonic devices in which the first letters of items form a prononcuable word to aid memory
-doesnt have to be real
95
examples of Mnemonics
-BODMAS
-SAME
96
Mnemonics in written cultures acrostics
-mnemonic devices in which the first letters of items create a phrase, rhyme or poem to aid memory
-helpful to remember something in a particular order
97
examples of acrostics
-Never eat soggy weatbix
98
Method of Loci
-converts mental images and associates them with specific locations to aid memory
-involves visualising items in specific well known locations
99
Method of Loci
-visually link info to familiar places
-helpful in it being in a certain order
-mentally walking through the familiar location acts as a retrieval cue
-works well when listed items are embedded into a story that includes vivid and memorable charicteristics
100
what could method of locai be less effective for
-Aphantasia
101
Mnemonics used by Aboriginal and torres straight Islanders communities (oral traditions)
-oral traditions= practices in which knowledge, stories and customs are preserved and shared through spoken word and movement
-they are effective ways at preserving and celebrating any communities knowledge, systems, stories and customs
102
Sung narritives
-stories that share important cultural, ecological and survivial information through the use of singing, harmony and rythm
-used to pass on information
-recievers of these tales learn them through the use of vocal songs and rythm
-they can enhance encoding, transferring and retrieval of cultural and survivial information
103
songlines
-multimodal performances conducted as a family of community travels through country anf spaces in the landscape that records journeys, link important sites and describe ways to live, care for and nurture country
-connection between songs and performances conducted by the group and physical paths travelled
-they carry laws and stories that AITSIP people live by
-celebrate their interconnectedness with country through songs and stories
104
songlines
-expressions of ecological and spiritual knowledge that provide information for survivial, e.g safe ways to travel
-use rhythm and narritive to communicate information linked to the landscape which can enhance the econding of information
-melodic and rhythmic structure of song and narritivie create powerful cues of retrieval
-when songlines are sung and individuals walk through the landscape (in reality or in their minds) individuals are able to retrieve info linked
105
How songlines aid in memory
-Navigation of journey= provides spatial scaffold
-Narrative strucutre= series of events prove a story scaffold
-Vivid imagery and emotional story content strengthen memorability
-musical rhythm and melody increase accuracy of memory
-encoding with dance provides embodied procedural scaffold
-associated with visual symbols and Imagery in drawing or paintings
106
introduction of experiement and key terms
-psychology book (gallager et el 2022) defines mnemonics as a process used to enhance and imrprove memory
-memory is defined by the literature review as the ability to encode infomration, store it and then retrieve it for later ( Norton, Sally A.)
-Mnemonics involved in written traditions are commonly applied and used by western cultures, (traditions, knowledge and information shared through writing and reading) Galleger et el. these include:
-Method of Loci; converting mental images to familiar places
-Acrostics: producing a story using the first letter of the words intended to remember
-acronym= forming a word using the first letter of all the information to be learnt
107
Info on the investigation to add to the introduction
-investigation involved 3 experiemental groups
-define each experimental group
-mean score of 13
108
Literature review
-storytelling in the classroom: how mnemonics impact memory
-Norton Sally A.
-Spalding university
-used 2 groups- experiemtal= story on parkisonons
-control= listed facts
-no extreme diffrence but stiry was just as affective
109
Aim
To define what Mnemonic device out of acrostics, method of loci and acronyms are the most effective method at improving memory over a period of 3 minutes. This is measured out of the mean number of key words each participant can remember out of 13.
110
Operationalised independant Variable
The mnemonic device used out of the method of loci-using a familiar path or route the participant takes, an acrostic, involving a story about a dessert using the letters of the key words and an acronym of PSYHCOLOGICAL- using the letters of the word to identify words to remember
111
Operationalised dependant variable
memory, amount of words memorised out of a mean score of 13 after 3 minutes of memorisation by each participant, self written down
112
Hypothesis
It is hypothesised that participants exposed to condition 3= the acrostic will have a better memory recall and therefor a higher mean number of items remembered when compared to condition 1( method of loci) or 2 (acronym)
113
Participants involved
1. Participants= 15 year 12 students from Ivanhoe grammar school, not very gender diverse, sampled by convenience= most readily available individuals
-between subject design
114
Materials
-sheet of paper with written acrostic and words needed to remember
- experimenter operationalised instructions
-classroom=controlled environment
-pencils/highlighters
115
procedure-
- Experimenter leads participants to classroom/ room (controlled)
- Experimenter informs participants of their rights as a participant etc.
- Reads out operationalised instructions written ( displays that students shouldn’t talk to each other during)
- Told that they must memorise words using an acrostic (either printed or created)
- Told given 3 minutes of silence
- Once 3 minutes of silence is up, individuals mark their words correctly out of 13
- Sheets are given to experiment and results are collaborated
116
mean of each condition
Mean of condition 1=12.75
Mean of condition 2= 12.33
Mean of condition 3=11.6
117
conclusion
Conclusion: in conclusion, the method of loci is a far more superior memorisation mnemonic than the others used (acronym, acrostic), the method of loci involved the participants imagining 13 key words within a place or route they were extremely familiar with. The method of loci received the largest mean score out of 13 for all participants; 12.75 while the acronym’s mean score was 12.33 and the acrostics mean score was 11.6. Therefor the hypothesis has been rejected as the acronym was the least effective at improving participants memory and the aim has been supported as the study did portray what type of written mnemonic is best for memory enhancement based on a mean score out of 13.
118
areas of error
-Participant differences- because this was a between subjects design, many participant differences could come up
-number of participants, 2 had 16, another had 13- unequal statistical power
-previous relevance to words/ memorisation of words
-cognitive abilities= differences in time and ability to memorise
-motivation
119
generalisability; sampling technique and sampling size
Sampling technique: Convenience sampling= not as representative as others, this meant the researchers use a sample that was the easiest for them to produce
Sampling size: relatively small and not varying, this means that generalisability is in fact limited as there is less representation of different kinds of people with different cultures or cognitive capacities
120
external and internal validity
External/ Internal validity: Internal= to limited degree, this is because although seeking to display what mnemonic is most effective, the study’s design and sampling technique could cause unable to be generalisable results, internal validity could be worked upon by repeatability, researchers should repeat the findings using different words and describe if the results are the same, this could increase internal validity
External= to a limited degree, this is because internal validity has not been met yet, once this is met, potentially reproducibility could occur to test whether result are the same under different conditions
121
implications
-does not account for individuals in oral cultures- because such a small sample was used, we cannot determine if this is the best Mnemonic device because it excludes individuals in oral traditions, if, these individuals were used as participants in the study it could display that these devices are only helpful to western cultures
-doesn’t account for individuals difference in ccognitive abilities, there are many reasons people remember more such as motivation, ability or cognitive differences. It is very hard to ensure eveeyone has the same cognitive abilities so, some of the results may come down to their mental abilities and not the mnemonic used
-classes did not have the same amount of people, this could mean the means are slightly different than they would be if the same amount of participants existed
-some students were year 11 and this could effect the study as yr 12’s may have more cognitive load or more developed memory abilities while yr 11’s could have less of a cognitive load or a less developed memory
122
appropriateness of data to diffrent cultural groups
can be displayed to western cultures but cannot be highly generalised to all, this technique is good for written cultures, not oral cultures. This means individuals where to use of memory devices are particularly spoken/ sung are not accounted for, this could be limiting to generalise as it substantially excludes cultural groups and displays ignorance to their memory learning tasks.
-this application of data is only on predominantly western participants which means, while being effective at displaying mnemonics that work for western cultures, we are fully disreguarding aboriginal and torres strait islander memory devices. For research to uphold respect, future experiments should involve aboriginal and torres strait islander mnemonics not just western culture mnemnonics.
