1
Q
how did atkinson and shiffrin initially envisage memory flowing
A
linearly and passively, with little effort involved
2
Q
how is the multi-store model of memory divided up
A
3 discrete stores (sensory, short term, long term)
3
Q
what does capacity refer to
A
The amount of information the memory store can hold
4
Q
what does duration refer to
A
the length of time the memory store can hold info
5
Q
what does coding refer to
A
The way in which information is stored/put into/processed into memory (acoustic, visual, semantic)
6
Q
what is the capacity of info that the sensory register can hold
A
limited by the amount of information that can be received, but it potentially could be very large
7
Q
what is the capacity of info that the short term memory store can hold
A
7 (+ or - 2) digits or chunks
8
Q
what is the capacity of info that the long term memory store can hold
A
unlimited
9
Q
what is the duration of info that the sensory register can hold
A
2 seconds max
10
Q
what is the duration of info that the short term memory store can hold
A
18-30 seconds without rehearsal
11
Q
what is the duration of info that the long term memory store can hold
A
potentially a lifetime
12
Q
what is the coding used in the sensory register store
A
multi-modal (haptic, iconic, echoic)
13
Q
what is the coding used in the short term memory store
A
acoustic
14
Q
what is the coding used in the long term memory store
A
semantic (attached to info that’s already held in the long term memory)
15
Q
what is the most common mode of forgetting in the sensory register
A
decay
16
Q
what is the most common mode of forgetting in the short term memory register
A
displacement
17
Q
what is the most common mode of forgetting in the long term memory register
A
mostly interference and cue/context-dependent forgetting
18
Q
what kind of information is stored in the haptic store
A
touch
19
Q
what kind of information is stored in the iconic store
A
sight
20
Q
what kind of information is stored in the echoic store
A
sound
21
Q
what is essential for information to transfer from the short term memory to the long term memory
A
attention and rehearsal
22
Q
explain the process of the multi-store model for memory
A
sensory input -> sensory memory store -> attention -> short term memory (rehearsal then transfers info to…) -> long term memory
(info is then retrieved from the long-term memory store when needed)
23
Q
Give supporting evidence for the sensory register store
A
sperling - ppts were presented with a 4x3 letter matrix for 1/20th of a second (before visuo-decay begins).
in condition A, ppts heard a low, medium or high dial tone, and how to remember the letters in the matching row.
in condition B, ppts had to recall as many as possible
ppts in condition A usually got 3/4. ppts in condition B usually got 4/12. this supports the idea that we can potentialy hold lots of info if your vision is adequate, and also supports the idea that vision is only stored for a short time
24
Q
give a weakness of using supporting evidence to give credibility to the multi-store model theory
A
the nature of the tasks are artificial and do not represent everyday life, meaning there is low mundane realism which lowers the task validity (also low EV because tasks are carried out in artificial labs)
25
when are stimuli transferred to the short term memory
when a person is focused on one of the sensory registers
26
What evidence is there to support the idea that info in the short-term memory store has a duration of 18-30 seconds (and must be rehearsed in order for this 0to be transferred to the LTM
Peterson and Peterson - PPTs had to listen to a trigram and then take part in a task that interfered with their memory (had to count backwards in 3s or 4s before recalling the trigram).
as the duration of the interference task increase, the accuracy of recall decreased - this supports this idea that the duration of STM is approximately 18-30 seconds because recall was especially poor when the interference task happened for over 15 seconds
27
give a weakness of using supporting evidence to give credibility to the short-term memory
the nature of the tasks are artificial and do not represent everyday life, meaning there is low mundane realism which lowers the task validity (also low EV because tasks are carried out in artificial labs)
28
What evidence is there to support the idea that info in the long-term memory store has unlimited capacity and duration
bahrick - ppts were school graduates between the ages of 17-74 and when asked to recall names from a yearbook, those who had left school 15 years previously had recall of 90%, and recall was 70-80% accurate 48 years after school.
this shows how info stored in the LTM is fairly resilient and supports the idea that duration is potentially unlimited (and capacity since it has been able to maintain this information alongside new info)
29
what evidence is there to support the idea that info in the long-term memory store is coded semantically
baddeley - ppts had to learn and recall a list of 10 words in order and they were placed in 1 of 4 conditions:
1. acoustically similiar words
2. acoustically dissimiliar words (control)
3. semantically similar words
4. semantically dissimilar words (control)
ppts were presented with the word list 4 times, and then had to do a 20 minute interference task.
recall was 85% accurate for acoustically similar words but only 55% accurate for semantically similiar words. this supports this idea that LTM must rely on semantic coding since ppts with similar words struggled to recall them due to confusion.
30
give a weakness of using supporting evidence to give credibility to the short-term memory
the nature of the tasks are artificial and do not represent everyday life, meaning there is low mundane realism which lowers the task validity (also low EV because tasks are carried out in artificial labs)
31
What evidence is there to support the idea that info in the short-term memory store has a capacity of 7 (+ or - 2) chunks of capacity
Miller - found that ppts could hold between 5 and 9 items in their short term memory before deterioration begins
32
What evidence is there to support the idea that info in the short-term memory store is coded acoustically
Conrad - ppts either had to recall semantically similar or acoustically similar words after being shown a word list.
acoustically similar lists were harder to recall even though presented visually (proving that memory is encoded acoustically in the STM)
33
what is the working memory model
a more detailed version of the short-term memory which explains that the system is only able to deal with a restricted amount of info, but can be manipulated or worked with (in problem solving tasks, for example)
34
what are the 4 main components of the WMM
1. central executive
2. visuo-spatial sketchpad
3. phonologial loop
4. episodic buffer
35
what is the role of the visuo-spatial sketchpad's role
to deal with visual material
36
what is the role of the phonological loop
to deal with verbal material
37
how does information flow through the WMM
Information enters the system (like hearing or seeing something).
1. The central executive directs attention to this info.
2. If it’s sound-based, it goes to the phonological loop where it’s briefly stored and rehearsed (silently repeating it).
3. Visual info goes to the visuospatial sketchpad instead.
4. The episodic buffer then combines info from both loops and links it to long-term memory if needed.
38
What is the role of the central executive
controls attention and coordinates actions of other components (can only deal with one task at a time)
39
What is the role of the phonological loop
holds auditory and verbal information
- 2 components: primary acoustic store and articulatory loop
40
how does the primary acoustic store (inner ear) work
stores info acoustically, but information decays after about 2 seconds unless it is rehearsed
41
how does the articulatory loop (inner voice) work
rehearses info from the primary-acoustic store over and over again
42
What is the role of the visuo-spatial sketchpad
stores and manipulates visual and spatial information from the eyes
43
What engages and uses the VSSP
maintaining an image (engages) and imagining it rotating (using)
44
What did Logie suggest the VSSP is divided into
1. inner scribe (responsible for spatial 3d tasks)
2. visual cache (responsible for shape and colour identification)
45
What is the role of the episodic buffer
provides temporary storage for components to help combine information
46
what 2 pieces of supporting evidence is there for the WMM
Baddeley found that ppts struggled to perform 2 visual tasks (describing F and tracking a light), compared to doing a visual and verbal task at the same time. this shows that STM has limited capacity and each store can only hold a certain amount of info at 1 time
shallice and warrington reported on a case study who suffered from brain damage after a motorcycle accident which damaged his short term memory. his verbal info was severely impaired, but visual info was in-tact. That suggests that the phonological loop was damaged, but there are seperate components to the model which deals with different types of info (but this is a case study...)
47
give 2 weaknesses of the WMM
1. the central executive's role is vague and brief (said by Baddeley himself) in explaining , making it an incomplete and invalid model
2. it is difficult to falsify due to its abstract nature and difficulty
48
what 3 parts did tulving argue the long term memory could be split into
1. procedural memory
2. semantic memory
3. episodic memory
49
what are procedural memories
memories that remind you how to do something - they are motor/action based
they require little conscious thought and are automatic
semantic and episodic work together unconsciously
(e.g. ride a bike)
50
what are semantic memories
general knowledge (a mental encyclopedia for facts, words, rules, concepts etc.)
it can be easily recalled and it is not time stamped
(e.g. 2+2=4)
51
where are semantic memories stored
the left-prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe/hippocampus
52
what are episodic memories
personal recollections of events - a mental diary that is linked to times and places.
it can be easily recalled and operates with semantic memory to draw on previous knowledge of objects, people, and events to understand them
53
where are episodic memories stored
the right prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
54
what are flashbulb memories
a type of episodic memory which gives vivid and detailed accounts of where we were and what we were doing during shocking events (without having to continuously recall them constantly)
55
where are procedural memories stored
initially coded in the cerebral cortex (specifically the motor and pre-frontal cortex), and cerebellum - hippocampus not required, unlike explicit memories)
56
why is it useful that procedural memories are implicit
since you don't have to think about them, they are useful survival skills (dont have to think about how to run/shout in times of danger)
57
how can forgetting be defined
Failing to retrieve memories
58
what are the 2 explanations for forgetting
1. interference theory
2. Absence of cues (cue-dependent forgetting)
59
how to remember the interference theory
PORN - proactive interferes with new memories, retroactive interferes with old memories
60
what does the interference theory suggest
info in the LTM becomes confused or disrupted by other info (the degree of forgetting is greater when the memories are similar)
61
what is proactive interference
When old memories interfere with new memories
62
what is retroactive interference
when new memories interfere with old memories
63
give an example of proactive interference
you're given a new locker, but keep going back to the old locker by accident
64
give an example of retroactive interference
getting a new timetable, but having to switch back to the old timetable again, and still going to the new classrooms
65
what supporting evidence is there to show the effects of similarity on interference
mcdonald asked ppts to learn a word list with 100% accuracy, then learn a new list of items (synonyms, antonyms, numbers etc.). ppts given synonyms had the most struggle recalling similar words showing that interference is strongest when memories are similar
66
give a strength of the interference theory
Most studies are carried out in controlled lab environments, which produce consistent findings. Since a standardised procedure is put into place, no other variables can influence recall, which makes interference seem like a credible explanation because it has strong internal validity
67
give 2 weaknesses of the interference theory
1. the lab tests make ppts carry out unrealistic tasks which don't reflect how we forget info in the real world. therefore there is low mundane realism
2. it mainly explains forgetting 2 sets of similar info which is not very realistic to everyday life, making it kinda useless
68
what are 'cues'
reminders or prompts to help us recall a memory
69
how does the retrieval failure theory ocurr
due to the lack of cues being present due to not being in the same enviroment or state as when the memory was coded
70
when does context-dependent forgetting occur
when there is a lack of external cues in the enviroment (e.g. trying to recall information learnt in a classroom when in an exam hall)
71
give 3 examples of external cues which may result in forgetting if not present at the time of recall
1. noise
2. people
3. light
72
what supporting evidence is there for context-dependent forgetting
godden and baddeley: 18 divers learnt a word list either on land or underwater. within each group, half were asked to recall the info in the same location, and the other half swapped. those with the different location had poorer recall (due to being in a different enviroment...)
73
when does state-dependent forgetting occur
When there is a lack of internal cues within a person's mental/emotional/physical state
74
when 3 examples of internal cues
1. feeling sad/happy
2. sober/drunk
3. altertness
75
what supporting evidence is there for state-dependant forgetting
goodwin: male volunteers learnt word lists either drunk or sober. when asked to recall 24 hours later, recall was best for those in the same state that they were in when learning
76
give 2 weaknesses for theory's of forgetting
1. it is arguably too simplistic, and due to this there is a variety of results around the subject. the context effect only applies to different kinds of memory being tested, therefore making the theory incomplete and somewhat invalid
2. Unapplicable because Baddeley himself admitted that context effects are not very strong in real life. this therefore does not explain everyday forgetting, making the theory have little real-world applicability/validity
77
what are the 2 main factors influencing the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
1. misleading information
2. anxiety
78
what are the 2 main types of misleading infomation
1. leading questions
2. post-event discussion
79
what are leading questions
questions which increase the likelihood that someone's schemas will influence them to give a desired answer
80
what supporting evidence is there to show the impact of leading questions
loftus and palmer: 45 uni students watched video clips of car crashes and afterwards were 'how fast were the cars going when they ___ into each other'. the verb in the blank space changed each time (contacted, smashed etc.) and it was discovered that ppts given the word 'contacted' estimated a speed of 9mph slower than those given 'smashed'
81
give one strength and one weakness of loftus and palmer's study
strength: good standardised procedure
weakness: lacks mundane realism (no shock from witnessing a video crash)
82
what was different about loftus and palmer's repeated experiment
150 ppts split into 3 groups (50 given smashed, 50 given hit, 50 not asked a question).
a week later they were asked if they saw any broken glass in the video - there was none, and 32% of ppts in the smashed group said yes.
This shows how misleading questions and schemas can alter someone's memory
83
what is the conformity effect
When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with one another afterwards, and contaminate each other's EWTs because they combine info
84
give a piece of supporting evidence for the conformity effect
Gabbert: PPTs were put into matched pairs and watched a video of a girl stealing money from a wallet from different perspectives, which showed different elements of the crime. Both PPTs were then discussed, and 71% recalled aspects they had not seen (there was a 0% inaccuracy for the control group who did not discuss so..)
85
what is believed to be the reason why ppts falsley recall events
to win social approval or because they genuinely believed others' knowledge over their own (social influence crossover WHAT???!!!!)
86
give 1 strength and 2 weaknesses for the 2 types of misleading info
strength:
huge practical applications. research has paved the way for the cognitive interview and made a massively positive impact on the legal system
weakness:
some factors (such as age) are overlooked, hinting that recall may not just be down to misleading information, but instead other EV's
weakness:
in most studies the tasks are artificial, and ppts act differently in real-life
87
what did johnson and scott suggest about anxiety around EWT
weapon focus could reduce the accuracy of someone's recall
88
what is weapon focus
when ppts focus on a weapon in a criminal's hand, therefore distracting their attention from other features of the scene, which reduces the accuracy of recall
89
how did johnson and scott test weapon focus
ppts sat in a waiting room and heard and argument in the room next door. a man then ran through either carrying a pen covered in grease or a knife covered in blood. ppts were then asked to identify the man from a set of photos
90
what were the results from johnson and scott's experiment
49% accuracy for pen man, 33% accuracy for knife man
91
give 2 pieces of supporting evidence for anxiety as a factor in EWT
1. johnson and scott
2. Peters: ppts met a nurse for an injection and a researcher for checkups over a period of time. They could easily recognise the researcher, but not the nurse
92
give 2 pieces of opposing evidence for anxiety as a factor in EWT
1. yuille and cutshall: ppts in high anxiety situations during a gun shop robbery had the best recall even 4 months afterwards, implying that anxiety provoking fight or flight may actually increase alertness
2. christianson and hubinette: witness' in high anxiety situations during a bank robbery had the most accurate recall afterwards
93
What is the cognitive interview
An improved version of a standard police interview to improve the effectiveness/accuracy of questioning
94
what were the previous issues with the standard police interview
- interviewer did most of the talking
- often asked forced/closed questions
- witnesses were discouraged from adding additional information
- unconscious leading questions may be asked
95
how to remember the 4 main techniques used in the cognitive interview
COPE
96
briefly explain the 4 main techniques used in the cognitive interview
1. reinstate the context: witness is encouraged to mentally recreate the crime to link their emotions/state
2. reverse the order: reduces dishonesty because it is harder to provide an untruthful account when reversing info, for example
3. perspective: recall the incident from someone else's view to distrupt the effects of schemas on recall
4. report everything: list all details, even if seen as minor and irrelevent because these may trigger further memories
97
Give 2 strengths of the cognitive interview
1. useful real-world applicability based on psychological research, making the theory more credible
2. Supporting evidence from Kohnken: the CI consistently provided more correct interviews compared to a standard interview (after doing a meta-analysis of 42 studies), showing that the information is reliable
98
give 2 weaknesses of the cognitive interview
1. may increase incorrect infomation being recalled if ppts are convinced their memory is accurate
2. time consuming in the moment, and for police officers who need to be trained
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (16)
# Cards
-
Definitions of Abnormality18
-
Phobias36
-
Depression25
-
OCD34
-
Social Influence139
-
Zimbardo's experiment14
-
Research Methods251
-
The Learning Approach56
-
The cognitive approach21
-
The biological approach42
-
Psychodynamic Approach43
-
Humanistic Approach27
-
Origins of Psychology24
-
Memory98
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Attachment83
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Approaches A03 (SODAS)14
