1
Q
What is capacity in memory? (Name the capacity of LTM and STM)
A
A measure of how much can be held in memory.
STM - limited capacity
LTM - unlimited capacity
2
Q
What is coding in memory? (Name the coding for STM and LTM)
A
The way information is changed so that memory can be stored.
STM - acoustic
LTM - semantic
3
Q
What is duration in memory? Name the duration of STM and LTM
A
A measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available
LTM - unlimited
STM - short duration
4
Q
Who measured the capacity of the STM?
A
Jacob’s (1887)
5
Q
What did Jacob’s argue is the capacity of the STM?
A
Average span for digits was 9.3 and letter was 7.3
6
Q
Who concluded the span of STM is 7 +- 2?
A
Miller (1956)
7
Q
Who argued that the capacity of STM is even more limited to 4 chunks of info?
A
Cowan (2001)
8
Q
The ___ of the chunks also matter in capacity of STM. Explain how
A
Size of chunks.
People had a shorter memory for eight word phrases than one syllable words.
9
Q
Jacob’s also identified what as a limitation for capacity of STM?
A
Individual differences -
The older you are the more items you will be able to recall.
10
Q
What did Peterson and Peterson find after their research into duration of STM?
A
Recall of consonant syllable was 90% correct after 3 seconds, and only 2% correct after 18 seconds.
When verbal rehearsal of consonant syllable is prevented, ( counting backwards ) the duration is very short.
11
Q
Who did research into duration of LTM and how?
A
Bahrick et al
400 people tested aged 17-74 of their memory of classmates from school.
Identify high school yearbook images of their classmates and then listing names.
12
Q
What was the findings from Bahrick’s research into duration of LTM?
A
Participants tested within 15 years of graduating showed 90% accuracy.
After 48 years, 70% accuracy.
The longer amount of years, recall decreases.
Decreases further for name recall than image recall.
13
Q
How was Peterson and Peterson’s testing artificial? (Limitation of duration of STM) also include a counterpoint.
A
Test did not reflect everyday memory activities as people do not normally want or need to remember meaningless consonants.
Counterpoint = sometimes we do try to remember fairly meaningless items e.g phone numbers or post codes. Therefore the study could hold some relevance to memory in everyday life.
14
Q
Limitation of Bahrick et al study into duration of LTM
A
May have been regularly rehearsed if kept in contact with some classmates. This would explain the high levels of recall.
15
Q
Who investigated into coding of STM and LTM?
A
Baddeley (1966)
16
Q
How did Baddeley investigate coding?
A
Gave participants list of words that were acoustically similar or dissimilar and list of words that were semantically similar or dissimilar.
17
Q
How is STM coded acoustically?
A
Participants had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words but could recall semantically similar words.
18
Q
How have Baddeley may not be testing LTM?
A
Participants were asked to recall a word list 20 mins after hearing it for LTM, this is a questionable amount of time for LTM testing.
19
Q
How may STM not be exclusively acoustic?
A
When participants given a visual task, and prevented from using verbal rehearsal they were still able to perform well on a visual task.
20
Q
Coding limitation of LTM -
A
Not exclusively semantic. Recall in LTM was related to visual as well as semantic categories.
21
Q
What is the sensory register in the multi store memory?
A
Information that gets picked up by the environment. Information collectors by your sensory organs.
22
Q
What is the coding, capacity and duration of the Sensory register
A
Coding depends on the sense organ involved.
Capacity is large
Duration is very brief sometimes less than half a second .
23
Q
Who first described the multi store model of memory?
A
Atkinson & Shiffrin
24
Q
How does information enter the short-term memory from the sensory register?
A
Have to pay attention to the environmental stimuli.
25
what is the process where information enters the long-term memory from the short-term memory?
Maintenance rehearsal where information is repeated and rehearsed
26
Describe the retrieval process in the multi store model of memory
The process of getting information from the long-term memory to the short-term memory making it available for use.
27
How does forgetting occur?
If you cannot locate the memory in the long-term memory or not made permanent in the first place.
28
What is a strength of the multi store model of memory? (To do with research support)
They are supporting evidence for separate stores due to the laboratory studies in capacity coding and duration and these unique characteristics support the existence of separate stores.
29
Describe how brain imaging studies have demonstrated supporting evidence for separate stores in the multi store model of memory
Beardsley found pre-frontal cortex activity during tasks requiring STM but not for tasks where LTM was needed. The LTM uses another part of the brain, the hippocampus.
30
How does the case study of HM provide a strength for the multi store model of memory?
The hippocampus was removed from both sides of the brain. He could not form new LTM. But performed well on STM tasks - immediate memory span
31
Limitation of the MSM in terms of simplicity.
Research has shown that there are different stores in both the STM and the LTM depending on the task we are completing. So the MSM is too simple.
32
Who identified the concept of deep and shallow processing when forming LTMs?
Craik and Lockhart
33
What is the difference between shallow and deep processing
Shallow is considering the appearance of words, deep is considering the meaning. Deep results in better recall.
34
Limitation of forming LTMs
More than just maintenance rehearsal, need elaborative rehearsal.
35
Who identified the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
36
Why did Baddeley and Hitch criticise the multi store memory model
STM being too simplistic as only one single store.
37
What is the central executive in the WMM? (2 key roles)
An attentional process to monitor incoming data from the senses and LTM.
Determines how the space systems are allocated to tasks.
38
What is the capacity of the central executive?
Limited
39
What is the phonological loop? And what is it subdivided into?
Deals with auditory information. Subdivided into phonological store and articulatory process
40
What is the difference between the phonological store and the articulatory process?
The phonological store is like an "inner ear" that passively holds recently heard auditory information for a short period, while the articulatory process is an "inner voice" that actively repeats information to maintain it in the phonological store
41
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
The slave system responsible for visual and/or spatial information
42
What is the visuo- spatial sketchpad subdivided into?
Visual cache, storing information about visual items
Inner scribe stores arrangement of objects within the visual field of view.
43
What is the episodic buffer? (2 key roles)
Extra storage system to hold information relating to both visual and acoustic information.
It integrates information from the other stores and sends information to LTM
44
Describe the strength of dual task performance in the working memory model
It supports the existence of different stores.
Baddeley and Hitch demonstrated that when two tasks were formed using the same store in the STM then performance slowed, e.g both phonological but when using tasks of different stores then did not affect each other.
45
Describe the strength of the working memory model to do with evidence for the phonological loop
It explains the word length effect, the finding that people show greater recall for short words than for longer words
Longer words cannot be rehearsed as well as shorter words so recall performance suffers for words that take longer to articulate
46
The phonological loop holds the amount of information that can be said in __ seconds
2
47
Describe how there is evidence for the WMM from brain damaged patients
Case study of KF (motorcycle incident) supporting the working memory model.
Struggled to process verbal auditory information but ability to recall visual information was unaffected. Suggests different stores deal with different types of information.
48
Vagueness of the central executive
Lack of detail on the role of the CE. Difficult to operationalise and measure. May be more than one component but this has not been established with empirical evidence.
49
Counterpoint to evidence from brain damaged patients in the WMM evaluation
• the trauma of experiencing an injury may itself lead to a change in behaviour so that a person performs worse on certain tasks such as decision making.
• individuals may have other difficulties such as problems focusing attention and so underperform on some tasks.
50
What two types of memory is LTM divided into?
Explicit (declarative, something you can verbalise)
Implicit (knowing how to do something)
51
Describe episodic memories. Give the three elements involved.
Memories of personal experiences. Three elements are specific details of the event, context and emotion.
52
Describe semantic memories. How do they usually begin?
Memories for general knowledge about the world, shared by everyone. E.g memory of the function of objects. Usually begin as episodic memories but then gradually lose their association with a specific event and transition into semantic memories.
53
Procedural memories.
Skills e.g knowing how to ride a bike. Through repetition they become automatic. The skill can be performed with little awareness of the steps - implicit.
54
Supporting evidence from brain scans about the different types of LTM.
Different areas of the brain are active when different kinds of LTM are assessed.
Episodic - hippocampus and frontal lobe
Procedural - cerebellum and motor cortex.
55
What part of the brain has heightened activity when recalling episodic memories?
Hippocampus and frontal lobe
56
What part of the brain has heightened activity when recalling procedural memories?
Cerebellum and motor cortex.
57
Criticism of MSM - brain scan evidence of LTM stores
The LTM is not one unitary store as different areas of the brain are active when recalling different types of LTM.
58
How does the case study of HM link to a strength of procedural memories?
HM after surgery could still form new procedural memories however could not remember being taught this skill
Therefore had no episodic memory of learning experience but could still form new procedural memories. Supports distinguish between procedural and declarative memories.
(NO EPISODIC BECAUSE HIPPOCAMPUS WAS AFFECTED)
59
Limitation of different types of LTM (episodic and semantic memory)
Not always essential for an experience to be behind knowledge, semantics can form independently. Not just episodic being a gateway for semantic.
60
Evidence for how episodic isn’t needed to form semantic memories
Some Alzheimer’s patients were able to form new episodic memories but not semantic.
61
What are the 3 explanations for forgetting?
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
Retrieval failure due to the absence of cues
62
What is proactive interference?
When an OLDER memory interferes with a NEW memory
Forgetting NEW information/learning
63
Give a research example of PI
Underwood
Analysed findings from a number of studies and found participants were less able to learn a list of words later in a sequence in comparison to those presented earlier on. Previous learning will be remembered better. Words encountered earlier on (first) are learned better - shows PI because each list learned makes it harder to learn subsequent lists. Forgetting NEW information/learning
64
What is retroactive inference?
New memory prevents the recall of older memory.
Forgetting occurs on OLDER memories/learning
65
Research on retroactive interference + examples of retroactive Interference
Learning nonsense syllables, retention interval (painting task) then recall of syllables. Recall was lower when participants given the task (NEW LEARNING of painting task interferences with PAST learning - syllables.)
66
Strengths of interference (2) (including a counterpoint)
+ real world application to advertisements (recognition reduced when exposed to two a week. Interference can be reduced by multiple exposure of one a day.)
+ lab experiments demonstrated the effects of both PI and RI. (E.g Underwood)
- counterpoint, artificial nature of lab experiments.
- counterpoint, Baddeley and Hitch found interference in a real life setting.
67
Limitations of Interference
- interference may lead to temporary forgetting. Just temporarily not being able to trace the memory as they can’t be accessed. Not been lost.
- individual differences, people with greater working mrm experience less interference.
68
What are cues?
A hint or trigger that can help retrieve a memory.
69
What is retrieval failure?
Cannot access the memory due to absence of cues. Successful retrieval relies on presence of cues.
70
What is the encoding-specificity principle?
Memory is effective if information present at time of encoding is also present and time of retrieval.
71
Who did research on encoding specificity principle?
Tulving and Pearlstone
72
Describe the research onto the encoding specificity principle.
Participants given 48 words belonging to 12 categories. Participants in free recall showed 40% recall, but in cued recall showed recall of 60% of the words.
73
What is context dependent forgetting
Recall depends on an external cue e.g surroundings/environment
74
Who did research on context dependant forgetting?
Godden and Baddeley
75
Describe Godden and Baddeley’s research on context dependant forgetting
Study of scuba divers who learned a set of words either on land or underwater. Later asked to recall in same learning environment or different one. Highest recall seen when divers recalled in same environment (e.g learned and recalled underwater) so context is key for retrieval to happen.
76
State dependant forgetting
Research depends on an internal cue e.g the feelings or emotions involved, or the physiological state (drunk, tired, etc)
77
Strengths of cues/retrieval failure
+ real world applications
+ more important explanation than interference, cues can override.
78
Example of real world application for retrieval cues
Mental reinstatement in cognitive interview. Recreating the location in mind.
79
Limitations of cues/retrieval failure.
- cues less relevant for meaningful info. If you have understanding, this can override cues.
- correlational relationship between cues and retrieval rather than causal. Just associated. Can never verify if cue was absent or present.
80
What are the two types of misleading information that can influence EWT?
Leading questions and post-event discussion
81
What are leading questions?
A question that suggests to the witness what answer is desired or leads the witness to the desired answer
82
What is post-event discussion?
A conversation between two co-witnesses or interviewer and witness after a crime has occurred. Details discussed may contaminate a witness’ memories for the event.
83
Who investigated into leading questions and how? Briefly outline.
Loftus and Palmer
45 participants. 7 film clips. Answered a questionnaire after each film containing one critical question. Verb was changed in the question.
84
What was the critical question and how was it changed in L&P research?
About how fast were cars going when they hit each other?
The verb was changed for each group. It was changed to smashed, collided, bumped or contacted instead of the word hit.
85
Findings of Loftus and Palmer’s research on leading questions
The group with the verb smashed showed highest mean speed rating (40.8mph)
Contacted has the lowest (31.8)
86
What further experiment did Loftus and Palmer do to experiment on leading questions? What did they find?
Later asked a question ‘did you see any broken glass’, and 16 participants in the smashed group recalled seeing broken glass, compared to 7 in the hit group. ‘Smashes’ implies broken glass.
87
What did Gabbert et al investigate?
Showed pairs of participants a different video of the same event exposing each person to unique items in one condition they discussed what they had witnessed before recalling.
88
What do Gabbert’s investigation show?
71% of witnesses who had discussed the event went onto mistakenly recall items they could have learned only from discussion with their partner
89
How may repeat interviewing change the accuracy of EWT?
Each time a witness is interviewed, the comments of the interviewer is risked being incorporated into the witnesses memory. It may repeatedly alter a persons memory unintentionally.
90
Limitations of Loftus and Palmer’s research (2)
- lack ecological validity, not reflect real life scenes. Not emotionally aroused in the san way.
- response bias. If questions are presented in the same order as the original info, less misleading info. Change of order of questions has more misleading info effect.
91
Strength of research on EWT
Application to criminal justice system. Recent DNA testing has shown that mistaken EW identification was largest single factor contributing to wrongful conviction of innocent people. So this research can help the memories of EW to be treated with caution.
92
Criticism of research investigating EWT.
Individual differences.
Elderly had more difficulty remembering than young people so particularly age is an important factor when examining the reliability of EWT.
93
How can anxiety influence EWT?
Anxiety can have a negative effect, (weapon focus) or a positive effect.
94
What is a weapon focus?
The anxiety experienced when the presence of a weapon distract attention from other features of the event which reduces the accuracy of the identification of the perpetrator
95
Who did research to demonstrate weapon focus effect?
Johnson and Scott
96
How did Johnson and Scott investigate the weapon effect?
It was arranged for participants to be sitting in a waiting room while an argument was going on in the next room in one condition. A man run through the waiting room carrying a greasy pen. This was the low anxiety condition. The high anxiety condition was when a man ran through holding a bloody knife which demonstrated the weapon focus.
97
Findings of Johnson and Scott
Accuracy identifying the man was 49% in the low anxiety condition but 33% in the knife condition supporting the idea of the weapon focus effect
98
Who investigated into the positive effect of anxiety on memory?
Christiansen and Hubinette
99
How did Christiansen and Hubinette investigate the effect of anxiety on memory?
They found evidence of enhanced recall when they questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden. the witnesses were either victims or bystanders i.e. high and low anxiety.
100
Christiansen and Hubinette investigation findings
The researchers found that all witnesses showed generally good memories for the details of the robbery but bank tellers had the best memory, suggesting high anxiety created more enduring memories.
101
Describe the Yerkes-Dodson effect
It is the inverted U graph. When anxiety or arousal is moderate memory performance would be most enhanced but when anxiety and arousal is too low or high accuracy is reduced.
102
Strength of C&H research on anxiety
Effect of anxiety was in context of a real crime, so higher ecological validity
103
Criticism of weapon focus
Those under high surprise in Pickel’s hairdresser study (raw chicken/hand gun compared to scissors or wallet) had poorest recall, so weapon focus may result from surprise rather than anxiety
104
Criticism of weapon focus event in individual differences
Level of emotional sensitivity affects recall.
Bothwell found ‘stable’ personalities who are less emotionally sensitive showed increasing levels of accuracy whereas neurotic personalities accuracy decreased as stress increased.
This suggests that one key extreme is variable in many studies of anxiety is personality and should be taken into consideration
105
What is the cognitive interview?
An interview technique that encourages witnesses to re-create the original context of the crime and attempt to increase accessibility of stored information
106
Who developed four distinct components of the cognitive interview?
Geiselman
107
What are the four components of the cognitive interview?
Mental reinstatement of original context
report everything
change order
change perspective
108
Research support strength of CI
Kohnken et al conducted meta analysis of 53 studies and found on average average and increase of 34% more correct information than standard interview techniques
So the cognitive interview is an effective technique
109
Limitations of cognitive interview (3)
- quantity vs quality. Kohnken found 81% increase of correct info but also 61% increase of incorrect info. It allows for more information, but it’s not all accurate.
- time constraints - takes longer to conduct and requires special training. Police often use deliberate strategies to limit an interview to save time.
- difficulty in establishing effectiveness as it varies between police forces which components to use so I can’t really claim with any certainty which techniques are most useful
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (15)
# Cards
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Origins And Approaches48
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Research Methods71
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Biopsychology (Yr 12)29
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Conformity40
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Obedience39
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Attachment95
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Social Influence & Social Change8
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Psychopathology89
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Strange Situation - Attachment19
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Memory109
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Year 13 Approaches14
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Biopsychology (Yr 13)62
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Nature Nurture Debate19
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Schizophrenia63
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Gender And Culture9
