Memory - Advanced Information

Question 1

Discuss research related to the features of STM [16 marks]

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Answer 1

• Baddeley (66) – STM – word list, test recall immediately,
• Acoustically Similar – worst. Poor recall on similar sounding. STM acoustically coded as remembered other lists fine.
• Jacobs (1887) & Miller (56) – Capacity – technique to measure digit span. How many item individual can remember and repeat back. Mean digits = 9.3, Mean letter = 7.3. Memory can hold 7-9 items.
• Miller – things come in 7s. Also used technique but chunked items. Recall 5 words and letter (via chunking). 7 to describe STM. 7+/-2
• Peterson & Peterson (56) – 24 in 8 trials. Consonant syllable/trigram (BNT) and 3-digit number. Asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal. Each trial stopped after 3,6,9,12,18s. Was retention reversal. Found STM last about 18 seconds. After very few correctly recall.

Question 2

Discuss research related to the features of STM [16 marks]

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Answer 2

• Baddeley’s study did not use meaningful material. The words used had no personal meaning to participants. When information is meaningful people will use semantic coding even in STM.
• Jacob’s study long time ago and early research like this, often lacked control of extraneous variables. E.g., some participants may have been distracted. Would reduce validity of findings.
• Miller’s research may’ve oversimplified capacity in STM. Cowan (2001) reviewed other research & concluded capacity of STM only 4 chunks - lower than Miller’s estimate of 7+/-2. Means accepted capacity of STM may be inaccurate.

Question 3

Discuss the multi-store model of memory. Refer to at least one other explanation of memory as part of your explanation [16 marks]

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Answer 3

• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed the model.
• Describes flow between 3 permanent storage systems of memory: sensory register (SR), STM and LTM
• SR - information from sense stored for half a second. It is modality-specific (a taste held as taste).
  Capacity - unlimited
• If sensory info moves into STM it is primarily encoded acoustically
• STM has a capacity of 5-9 items for approximately 30 seconds.
• Capacity is increased through ‘chunking’
• Rehearsing info via rehearsal loop help retain info in STM and consolidate in LTM.

Question 4

Discuss the multi-store model of memory. Refer to at least one other explanation of memory as part of your explanation [16 marks]

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Answer 4

+ The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research. It was influential in creating other models of memory, such as the Working Memory Model, to deal with the short comings of the original model. This shows how important Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s contribution to the field of memory was.
+ It makes sense that memories in the LTM are encoded semantically. For example, you might recall the general message put across in a political speech, rather than all the words as they were heard. Therefore has face validity
- There is evidence that there are different types of LTM. Clive Wearing could not recall what his children were doing with their lives (episodic memory) but could remember how to walk and play the piano (procedural memory). The view that LTM is only one store s therefore not correct and overly simplified.
- Craik and Watkins (1973) argued there are two types of rehearsal (maintenance and elaborative). Maintenance rehearsal is the only one described in MSM. It is argued that elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage where information is linked to existing knowledge.

Question 5

Discuss the working memory model [16 marks]

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Answer 5

• Representation of STM. Suggests STM dynamic processor of different types of info using sub-units coordinated by central decision-making system. Baddeley and Hitch (74).
• MSM criticised over-simplifying STM (and LTM) as single storage system, so WMM - STM composed of 3, limited capacity stores.
• Central executive- Manages attention + controls info from two ‘slave stores’ (phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad). Processes info in all sensory form, only deal one strand of info at time.
• Phonological loop - Temporarily retains language-based info in auditory form. Holds amount spoken aloud in two seconds. Consists of an articulatory rehearsal process and the phonological store.
• Articulatory Rehearsal Process - ‘inner voice’ of language, allows maintenance rehearsal, includes any language presented visually and then converted to phonological state. Involves subvocal repetition.
• Phonological store - ‘inner ear’ holds auditory speech information and order it was heard. (or any visually presented language converted by the articulatory process).
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad - Temporarily retains visual and spatial information. Holds 3 or 4 objects at one time. Consists of visual cache (stores visual info about form and colour); inner scribe - deals with spatial relationships and arrangement of objects.
• Episodic buffer - Facilitates communication between components of WMM + LTM. Integrates info from other stores & maintains sense of time sequencing. Can hold 4 chunks of info.

Question 6

Discuss the working memory model [16 marks]

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Answer 6

+ Support - Shallice and Warrington’s patient KF who suffered brain damage. After damage happened KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual info normally i.e., he had difficulty with sounds but could recall letters and digits. Suggests just his phonological loop had damage leaving other areas of memory intact.
+ Brain scanning studies support. Braver (1997) gave participants tasks involving the CE while having a brain scan and found greater activity in the prefrontal cortex. As difficulty of task increased, activity in the left prefrontal cortex also increased. Makes sense in terms of the WMM; as demands on the CE increase, must work harder to fulfil its function. Suggests biological basis to CE, increasing the validity of the model.
- Cognitive psychologists suggest lack of clarity over CE. Argued this part of model not really explained. CE needs to be more clearly specified than just being an attentional process. This means WMM could be viewed as incomplete.

Question 7

Discuss the use of the cognitive interview as a means on improving the accuracy of memory [16 marks]

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Answer 7

• Geiselman - achieve more detailed and accurate EWT.
• At start, interviewer attempts help witness feel relaxed, and seeks to tailor their language to suit the individual. Aim to be non-judgmental and avoids personal comments throughout. 4 techniques involved
• Report Everything - Witnesses encouraged include every single detail of event, though may seem irrelevant, or witness doesn’t feel confident about it.
• Important as seemingly trivial details may highlight something that’s been overlooked. May also trigger other important memories.
• Reinstating context - should return to original crime scene “in their mind” and imagine environment and their emotions. Links to context and state dependent forgetting.
• Reinstating physical and mental context may act as cues/triggers to recall.
• Reversing order. - Events should be recalled in different chronological order to the original sequence e.g., from the end to the beginning, from the middle to the beginning.
• Helps verify accuracy. Prevents people reporting their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual event. Also reveals dishonesty, as more difficult to produce an untruthful account in reverse order.
• Changing perspective - witnesses should recall incident from other people’s perspectives e.g., another witness/ perpetrator.
• Promotes more ‘holistic’ view of event, which may enhance recall. Also disrupts effect of expectations and schema on recall.

Question 8

Discuss the use of the cognitive interview as a means on improving the accuracy of memory [16 marks]

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Answer 8

AO3 CW, DW, DW
+/- According to Milne and Bull (2002), each individual element of the cognitive interview was equally valuable. Individually, each technique produced more information than the standard police interview. However, Milne and Bull found that using a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any of the other conditions. This suggests that some elements are more useful than others and that it is pointless to use all four elements of the cognitive interview procedure if only using two produces the best recall.
- The cognitive interview is time consuming. For example, more time is needed to establish a rapport with the witness and allow them to relax. This interview technique therefore takes up more resources than the standard police interview. The impact of this is that the police may be more reluctant to use the cognitive interview.
+ The cognitive interview is particularly helpful if interviewees are older. Mello and Fisher (1996) found it produced significantly more information for older participants. May be because older adults are overly cautious about reporting information if they feel they are wasting time, but the cognitive interview places an importance on reporting everything. This suggests that the cognitive interview is more effective for older people than younger people. Therefore, as it’s time-consuming shows only be used with older people to gain excess info than younger people.