Memory & Intelligence Flashcards

Question

What's the persistence of vision phenomenon?

Answer 1

- The retention of an image of an object or event for a brief period of time after it's no longer present - Here you can directly see information that entered your eyes moments ago - Ex: when an object moves really fast and it looks spread out over space

Answer 2

- A 19th Century toy called the thaumatrope - A disk with different drawings on each side and when the disk was spun quickly, it would lead to the illusion of seeing both images at the same time

Answer 3

- He conducted a series of well-known experiments on sensory memory in which participants were presented with stimuli consisting of 3 rows of 4 letters (12 letters total) -> the display flashed for .05 seconds - There was a whole-report condition and a partial-report condition

Answer 4

- In the whole-report condition, participants were flashed a grid of letters for a duration of .05 ms and were asked to report as many of the letters from the whole display as they could after the beep sound - He found that participants typically reported the letters from one of the rows, suggesting that whichever row they happened to be paying attention to was available to report - This ability to report the letters, a behavioral output, depends on those items making their way into STM - This indicated that approx. 25% of the overall grid could be retained in STM (~4 items)

Answer 5

- In the partial-report condition, participants were given instructions to report only one specific row of letters in the grid based on the presentation of an auditory tone whose pitch indicated which row participants had to report (within .01 - 1 second, a high/medium/low tone signals which row to report) - On critical trials, they were only provided with this tone after the letter array had flashed -> meaning that by the time participants were told which row to report, the stimulus was already gone - In this condition, participants were shown a grid of letters for .05 seconds - Participants had to rely on their memory of the grid to report a specific row

Answer 6

- He found that if the tone was presented very soon after the letter grid had disappeared (ex: 100 ms), participants were often able to report 75-80% of the letters in the row that was indicated - This suggests participants could actually attend to that line of letters and call it into STM, even though the physical stimulus was no longer present - He concluded that much more than 25% of the letter grid was still present in sensory memory and that, during that time, the participants could decide which of the rows to pay attention to in order to bring them into STM and report them - He also found that as he increased the delay between when the grid disappeared and when the tone was presented, the capability to accurately report a specific row of letters decreased - By the time the delay was 1 second, participants were no longer able to use the tone usefully and they only reported whichever row they happened to have been attending to - Here the grid was no longer available in sensory memory and performance was equivalent to the whole-report condition (accuracy of approx. 25% of the grid) - This study tells us that the sensory memory capacity is quite large, people could remember or recall a lot of info from sensory memory but only for a short period of time

Answer 7

That the duration of sensory memory is approx. 1 second

Answer 8

Like other kind of memory, "forgetting" takes place over time, with better memory immediately after stimulus presentation and gradually fading away until nothing is left after a second

Answer 9

- The visual form of sensory memory in which much of the visual input can be stored for a short period - Sperling referred to this high-capacity/short-duration form of visual memory as iconic memory, based on the fact that the memory is something like a photographic image or icon

Answer 10

- An auditory form of sensory memory in which much of the auditory input can be stored - Sound-byte held for ~ 3 seconds - Important for distinguishing between when 1 person is speaking and when another is speaking

Answer 11

- Attention - Attended information moves from sensory to short term memory

Answer 12

- It's generally agreed that it can hold an average of 7 items - Limited capacity: magical number 7 plus or minus two” - Ex: remembering a list of names or numbers

Answer 13

It's agreed (not unanimously) that it can hold around 4 items

Answer 14

- He presented participants with lists of letters, numbers or words and asked them to repeat the items in order - He found that the average capacity to repeat the items without any errors was 7 - He also found that some people had capacities of as few as 5 items and as high as 9 items - Miller referred to this capacity limit as "the magical number 7 plus or minus 2"

Answer 15

An auditory code

Answer 16

- Research has shown that a person's memory capacity remains stable across multiple tests & even over many years and thus appears to be a fixed feature of a person's brain - Miller's idea of "the magical number 7 plus or minus 2" - The plus or minus 2 represents the fact that some people have stable capacities that are higher than others and "magical number 7" is the average

Answer 17

- "Low capacity" individuals are only able to reliably repeat 5 items - "High capacity" individuals are able to reliably report up to 9 items

Answer 18

He stated that it doesn't capture the real capacity limits of STM

Answer 19

- Any combination of letters, numbers, or sounds that constitute a meaningful whole - Grouping items together in a meaningful way so more information to be represented at one time - It appears that what we can remember in STM are meaningful groups of information, what Miller referred to as a chunk - The capacity to chunk information into larger units depends on engaging long-term memory, where patterns of previously encountered items (i.e. chunks) are stored - Once a combination of items is matched to memory, it no longer needs to be represented as separate items but as a single chunk - Chunking increases with knowledge

Answer 20

- First, participants are shown a screen with several objects, such as colored squares - This screen disappears and a new one is shown, which may be identical to the original or have some property changed - When the number of items in the set is less than 4, performance is nearly perfect but after 4 items, it begins to decline rapidly with number of items in the set - Using this kind of task, researchers have concluded that VSTM has a capacity of 3-5 items

Answer 21

- Some research has provided support for a kind of visual chunking, similar to that which takes place for auditory stimuli - In the case of visual stimuli, people can remember 4 visual objects, even if each object has multiple features, such as a shape, a color and an orientation

Answer 22

- They used a paradigm reminiscent of change blindness, where Ps had to identify which square changed colors, in order to test visual memory - They found that once the number of objects increased to greater than 5, memory performance rapidly dropped off

Answer 23

- They provided chimpanzees and human participants with 5 digits that appeared on a screen from 210 ms up to 650 ms - After that wait period, the digits disappeared and were replaced by blank squares - The subject was tasked with touching the squares to reveal the digits in numerical order - They found that on average, most humans' memory performance for the 5 digits decreased when the presentation time dipped below 400 ms - However, some chimpanzees were able to still store the 5 digits with only 200 ms exposure to the numbers

Answer 24

A super-memory

Answer 25

- People who are capable of memorizing long strings of letters or numbers - Mnemonists aren't thought to be skilled due to an enhanced memory capacity but rather due to a skilled ability to form large chunks - Many mnemonists report that they don't have an extraordinary memory, some even report having a bad memory in their everyday lives, but they employ memorization tricks that allow them to create consistently larger chunks

Answer 26

- They aimed to examine the effect of expertise in the visual domain, comparing chess experts and novices' ability to memorize configurations of chess pieces on a chess board - They found that chess experts were able to remember the positions of ~16 pieces while the novices could only remember ~4 (consistent with standard VSTM) - This doesn't mean that chess players have larger VSTM capacity - The effect of expertise was only found to apply when the chess pieces consisted of real configurations that could occur in a chess game - When the pieces were placed randomly in a configuration that could never occur, experts were no better than novices at recalling the configuration - This suggests that experts' greater capabilities in the first case likely depended on combining certain configurations of pieces together into meaningful chunks - Experts use knowledge of moves to ‘chunk’ pieces together

Answer 27

They demonstrated that attaching meaning to the information facilitates the storage of information

Answer 28

- Consists of an STM task in which participants were told, on each experimental trial, to memorize 3 letters (i.e. a trigram) - However, immediately after the presentation of the 3 letters, the participants were presented with a 2-digit number and had to begin counting backwards by 3's out loud, a task that was intended to prevent rehearsal of the trigram - After a certain duration of counting backward, participants had to report their memory of the trigram - They found that, under these conditions, the memory of the trigram began to fade after a few seconds and by 15-18 seconds, participants showed little to no memory of the original trigram

Answer 29

- That the duration of STM, in the absence of rehearsal, is ~15 secs - They attributed their findings to decay and not interference, based on the fact that participants weren't asked to remember anything else besides the letters on each trial

Answer 30

- Decay models - Interference - Some researchers have argued that there's no decay at all in the absence of interference

Answer 31

- According to decay models, forgetting occurs simply because of the passage of time -> info will just fade away - According to this view, memory may be thought of like a leaky bucket in which information trickles out

Answer 32

- Where new information that comes into memory serves to displace older information - Forgetting from interfering information

Answer 33

- Proactive interference - Retroactive interference

Answer 34

- ‘Forward in time’ - A phenomenon in which information encoded at an earlier point in time interferes with the ability to recall information encoded at a later time - Learned information causes you to forget something that you learn in the future - Previously learned material interferes with new information - Ex: trouble learning a new phone number

Answer 35

- 'Backward in time’ - A phenomenon in which information encoded at a later point in time interferes with the ability to recall information encoded at an earlier time - Newer information causes you to forget something from the past - Newly learned info interferes with old info - Ex: trouble remembering your old phone number

Answer 36

- First, the counting task requires a participant to remember each previous number, which could generate retroactive interference of the original trigram - Also, there might be interference from long-term memory, specifically as participants performed multiple trials over the course of the experiment, it's possible that some of the letters from previous trials could interfere (proactively) with the current trial - They also found that in the first few trials, participants remembered the trigram for up to 15 secs with relatively high accuracy. Only on later trials, after the participants had seen many previous trigrams, did the decay over time begin to appear. Suggesting that both interference and decay are at work in the loss of memory in STM

Answer 37

- They had participants report remembered sequences of letters by responding on a computer keyboard - They had participants type the sequence at varying speeds, so they could measure the effect of time on recall - As they performed this memory task, they had to repeat an irrelevant word out loud, a technique called articulatory suppression - They found that there was no effect of speed at which participants had to repeat the letters on their recall of the items - They concluded that the passage of time alone, without interference, doesn't cause decay in STM

Answer 38

A technique used in verbal memory experiments, designed to block rehearsal without causing interference in STM, in which the participant repeats a task-irrelevant utterance out loud while trying to maintain other verbal items in memory

Answer 39

- In this model, STM is an active workspace where information could be mentally manipulated based on the current task - This model proposed that STM isn't a single unitary store but consists of 3 connected but distinct sub-units - A critical aspect of WM is that it differentiates between visual and auditory stores -> this division is based on experimental research that suggests that these different modalities really are stored in terms of distinct sensory codes (there's data that show that auditory memory really does seem to be encoded in terms of auditory properties) - In the WM model, the visual and auditory buffers are separate from each other and therefore don't interfere with one another - WM has a limited capacity and duration - Where incoming information can relate to prior knowledge and be manipulated - Where information enters consciousness and awareness - Critical for LTM formation

Answer 40

- The visual component of the working-memory model that both holds visual information and allows for active manipulation and analysis of that information (manipulation -> ex: mentally rotating a remembered subject) - Comprised of the visual cache and the inner scribe - Related to visual semantics

Answer 41

- The auditory (or verbal) component of the working-memory model in which information can be repeated/rehearsed - Similar to the original conception of STM - Comprised of phonological store and articulatory control loop - Related to language

Answer 42

- AKA gatekeeper - Manages and maintains - Component of the working-memory model that determines what information makes it into memory and toggles between the visual and auditory memory stores - Component that's completely novel to the WM model

Answer 43

- He found that when people had to memorize a list of letters, they had more difficulty doing so when the letters sounded more similar to one another (ex: "c", "t", "v", "b") than when they didn't (ex: "c", "s", "r", "m", "l") - He referred to these errors as "acoustic confusion"

Answer 44

- On each trial, participants had to either do an auditory-memory task or a visual-memory task - The auditory-memory task consisted of hearing a sentence - On auditory trials, participants had to then report whether each word in the sentence was a noun or not, in the order in which it appeared - On visual trials, they had to mentally move along the vertices of the block letter and report whether each one was an "extreme" or not, meaning whether it was a point on an outside or inside corner of the letter - Brooks employed 2 different ways of responding to these tasks - In the verbal task, participants could verbally respond "yes" or "no" and in the visual task they would point to a "Y" or a "N" on a computer screen

Answer 45

- He found that people did better on the task when they had to respond in a different modality than what they had to remember - Ex: if they were doing the auditory-memory task, they performed better if they used the visual pointing task and vice-versa for the visual memory task - These results suggest that visual and auditory memory are processed separately from one another and that they don't interfere with one another, at least not as much as same-modality information does - His experiment illustrates how subjects completed memory tasks primarily taxing either the phonological loop or visuo-spatial sketchpad and then used either an auditory or visual mode to respond

Answer 46

1. Coordinating between the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad 2. Determining what information makes it into STM in the 1st place

Answer 47

To differences in the ability to filter out irrelevant information from memory

Answer 48

- They gave participants a standard STM task - Based on the participants' performance, the researchers divided people into categories of high or low memory capacity - Both groups then performed a specialized visual STM task - On all trials, participants were first shown a cue to indicate which items would be relevant to remember - On standard trials, participants only had to remember the left or right side of the memory display - Once that slide disappeared, a test display soon appeared and participants were required to indicate whether the relevant items had changed from the memory display - On some trials, they also presented blue rectangles along with the red ones; participants were told to ignore these and only remember the red rectangles - After the delay period, when participants would have been trying to hold the information in memory, Vogel et al. used an EEG to measure an electrical event-related potential (ERP) response known to be active during STM activation - They then compared the ERP responses of the high and low-capacity memory participants

Answer 49

- They found that the ERP response was similar for the 2 groups of participants when only the red rectangles were present - However, when the blue distractor rectangles were present, low-capacity individuals showed a stronger ERP response than high-capacity individuals - They suggested that this means that low-capacity individuals couldn't successfully filter out the blue rectangles, even though they weren't relevant to the task - This suggests that these individuals' central executive may not be as effective as those with higher capacity

Answer 50

Their findings suggested that a critical role of the central executive is to make sure irrelevant and unwanted information doesn't enter into memory because it could interfere with the information the system actually wants to retain

Answer 51

- To an inability to filter out unwanted information from the working memory - Hence, age-related memory decline may be due to a decline in the central executive rather than the memory stores themselves

Answer 52

- People can remember many more items when they form a coherent story, a phenomenon related to Miller's "chunking" - This indicates that the phonological loop must somehow interact with LTM - Also, conscious experience appears to bind together different modalities - Ex: we remember a person speaking with a given voice

Answer 53

Based on these and several other considerations, he updated his WM model with a new component called the episodic buffer

Answer 54

- A component proposed as a revision to the original WM model that can combine information from across different sources including the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad as well as long-term memory (integrates info from STM and LTM) - This component is seen as a separate, time-limited, memory store that can combine information from across different sources - The buffer is controlled by the central executive and is assumed to lead to conscious awareness of time-based, multi-sensory memories - Related to episodic LTM

Answer 55

- Other measures of cognition including general intelligence - Conway (2003) reviewed research on measures of general intelligence and found that they were strongly correlated

Answer 56

Some have suggested that this is likely due to developmental factors and children with greater memory spans may be able to increase other areas of cognition

Answer 57

- They presented evidence for this for the visuo-spatial working memory capacity - They found that 1st graders' skills in completing tasks dependent on visual working memory were predictive of their mathematical abilities in 5th grade

Answer 58

They found that assessments of memory span administered to children at an early age can predict other measures of reasoning ability later in life

Answer 59

- Gui et al. (2018) found that short-term musical training can lead to selective improvements in WM ability in young children - Training to play an instrument for 6 weeks has been shown to improve working memory capacity for maintaining digits

Answer 60

- Such training often consists of repeated participation in increasingly difficult WM tasks with the idea that if people can increase their WM capacity, this may enhance other areas of cognition as well - While it's clear that performance on specific WM tasks improves with training, the evidence is much more unclear as to whether there's an effect on any other measure of memory or general intelligence - To date, the evidence suggests that a "buyer beware" approach is warranted

Answer 61

- It consists of the initial perceptual encoding of information continuing on for as long as the information is being actively remembered - Working memory happens all over the brain - Ex: visual working memory engages visual regions of the brain, such as the occipital lobe, while auditory working memory engages auditory areas, such as the temporal lobe - There's no one place we can point to in the brain that's responsible for working memory - While working memory clearly involves modality-specific regions, the frontal lobes seem to play a particularly important part

Answer 62

- They identified a neuron in the pre-frontal cortex that responded when a square was presented somewhere in the visual field - They presented this square to the monkey and then made it disappear, followed by a delay period - After the delay period was over, they gave the monkey a cue to move its eyes to where the square had previously been (requiring that the monkey hold the location in memory) - They found that the neuron that had responded to the original presentation of the square went into overdrive during the delay period when the monkey had to remember its location - However, if the monkey wasn't given the memory task, this response disappeared

Answer 63

- They used a delayed-match-to-sample task in human subjects - Using fMRI, they found increased activity in the prefrontal cortex during the delay phase, suggesting an important role of the frontal cortex in short-term/working memory

Answer 64

- Task designed to test visual short-term memory - Participants are shown an image, followed by a delay and then a second image and are tasked with determining whether the 2 images are the same or different

Answer 65

- They found that when regions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are damaged, patients show impairment on tasks similar to the delayed matching tasks, adding more direct evidence for the role of this brain region in short-term/working memory - Because the frontal lobes are typically associated with executive functions, it's possible that this area is the site of the central executive, which serves as the "master" over the other cortical areas as they retain perceptual information

Answer 66

As the ability to adapt to change

Answer 67

"The true sign of intelligence is not knowledge but imagination"

Answer 68

- The ability to generalize memories (Memory); flexibly use knowledge (Concepts) to solve new problems (Problem solving) - Ex: I know how to fold a burrito, but how do I swaddle a baby? -> apply burrito folding techniques to swaddling - Applying the knowledge from other lessons to solve new things - Thinking and reasoning abilities beyond algorithms

Answer 69

Intelligence relates to efficient and appropriate reasoning: - Learning from experience - Adapting to the environment - Acting purposefully It varies across individuals - IQ tests have been designed to measure general intelligence differences - Other factors underlie differences on these tests aside from “intelligence”

Answer 70

- Form of AI - ChaptGPT solves ambiguous decision-making and reasoning tasks similarly to humans - ChatGPT uses machine learning to produce content and interact with individuals - ChaGPT is a set of algorithms that you feed a bunch of words to and it’ll determine what comes next

Answer 71

- The conjunction fallacy - Study where they gave ChatGPT a bunch of decision-making problems and asked it to solve them - Gave it the Linda problem which highlights the conjunction fallacy Ex: 1.Linda is a bank teller. 2.Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement. - ChatGPT just like humans engaged in the conjunction fallacy when trying to solve the Linda problem

Answer 72

- Automated tasks - Routine activities - Create content (ex: create Bizarre songs and co-create movies with AI)

Answer 73

- Editing: avoid repetition in content - Write accurate news articles (provides ‘fake news’) - Can't provide opinions or advice - Can’t create original puzzles

Answer 74

The study of psychological assessment

Answer 75

With a standard test

Answer 76

- Standardization: test scores are compared to pre-tested ‘standardization’ or ‘norm’ groups. A person’s score on some test is calculated by comparing it to a group of people who took the test before - Normal distribution or curve: a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes test score distribution. The scores on these tests are thought to follow a normal distribution

Answer 77

- IQ scores are said to be normally distributed across the population - IQ tests tend to be overused - Average score of 100 - SD = 15 - Within 1 SD of the mean, IQ scores between 85 and 115 (68% of people) - Within 2 SD of the mean, IQ scores between 70 and 130 (95% of people) - The top 2% = scores above 130 - Bottom 2% = scores below 70 - Top 0.1% = scores above 145 - Below 0.1% = scores below 55

Answer 78

- IQ scores have high test-retest reliability - Scores are the same across testing - Evidence: Score at age 6 correlates with scores at age 18

Answer 79

A consistency in scores from one assessment to the other (across instances of testing)

Answer 80

When you can retake an assessment at different times and get the scores

Answer 81

- IQ scores should have predictive validity if they predict performance on something requiring intelligence - These tests predict something that requires intelligence (academic achievements and job performance) - Correlations of 0.5 with job performance - But what is considered intelligence will vary across context and culture (IQ tests might not be valid everywhere in the world)

Answer 82

The test is measuring what it is intended to measure

Answer 83

* Francis Galton (1822 to 1911) * Developed intelligence tests, where he looked at reaction times speed - He was really interested in differences in individuals and their ability to complete cognitive tasks - His purpose was questionable - Founded the eugenics movement - Racially-motivated view of how to “improve” society - A dark start to intelligence testing

Answer 84

* Developed a test in response to a request from the French government * Purpose to identify children that needed special education in school * Binet viewed intelligence as important for: practical life, adapting to circumstances, judging and reasoning well * Binet thought his test only measured academic output and not intelligence

Answer 85

* 30 questions of increasing difficulty (easy -> hard) * Easy items: Follow a light beam * Difficult items: Describe abstract words (could only be answered by children who had superior intelligence) * Some questionable items (had to judge how attractive certain faces were) * Standardization: a child’s mental age was calculated by comparing the score /30 to the score of a group of children the same chronological age - This test was too complex

Answer 86

* Based on the Simon-Binet test - He adapted this test to the American culture and the American school curriculum - Turmin saw intelligence as the ability to identify concepts and grasp the significance of these concepts - The questions progressively got more difficult to tap into adult intelligence - Ex: Item for a 4yr old “Repeat the following numbers: 3 6 7” - Ex: Item for an adult “Describe the difference between misery and poverty” - Used IQ RATIO scores: (Mental Age (MA) / Chronological Age (CA)) x 100 * If MA > CA, ability is above average of peers (gifted) * If MA < CA, ability is below average of peers (delayed) - This test used the IQ RATIO test which gave rise to the IQ score

Answer 87

- People began to question if the tests presented before accurately measured intelligence - Weschler developed a test with separate intelligence scales for children and adults and separate scales to measure different types of intelligence - Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC) and Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) - He stated that we can’t use the same test to measure both adults and children - He thought there were differences in verbal and performance tests in intelligence - With each of these tests, he developed sub-scales to test for intelligence

Answer 88

There's a Full-scale IQ (FSIQ) that's broken down into 2 subunits: Verbal IQ (VIQ) and Performance IQ (PIQ)

Answer 89

- Similarities task: explain what 2 words have in common - Vocabulary task: define words

Answer 90

- Measures non-verbal intelligence - Picture completion task: determine what is missing from a picture - Picture arrangement task: organize pictures in a logical order

Answer 91

* Ps are shown patterns with a missing section and asked to determine the missing piece from a set of options * Non-verbal assessment * Relatively free from linguistic influences and thus free from cultural biases

Answer 92

Problem with Wechsler’s scales and more particularly the verbal scale is that they are heavily culturally biased due to linguistic influences

Answer 93

- “General intelligence” - Meaning that if you give a test of intelligence and a test of working memory, they’ll be highly correlated - Hence, WM can predict intelligent behaviors, including reasoning and adaptability - WM can also predict job and academic performance/intelligence - Some researchers think intelligence is simply working memory

Answer 94

- Some have found that genetics is a strong predictor of intelligence - Studies conducted on the similarities of fraternal or identical twins raised in the same or different environment in IQ scores - Identical twins raised in the same environment have more similar IQ scores - This is evidence that some aspect of these scores is related to genetics * Shared genetics is a better predictor of IQ correlations among twins than the environment

Answer 95

* These are helpful to identify children who need help but can be used to exclude marginalized communities * There are factors that can affect performance (ex: socioeconomics, gender, culture)

Answer 96

* Socioeconomics * Gender differences in self-estimated intelligence (people who identify as male have higher estimates of IQ as opposed to those who identify as female) * Culture: Familiarity with task and stimuli can affect performance - There's a consequence when you take these tests on how you feel about taking these tests

Answer 97

- Explains IQ variations - This effect highlights that there has been a steady rise in IQ scores - Ex: Americans’ IQ scores increased 3 points per decade over 100 years - Have people gotten smarter or is there an aspect in the environment that are affecting these shifts?

Answer 98

Education: - As time goes on, there’s an increase in schooling and opportunities - As schooling and opportunities increase, there’s an increase in IQ tests scores Complexity: - Over time, more focus on abstract thinking and critical thinking, especially in wealthier countries Health: - There's a greater focus on health, which improves brain function and enhances IQ test scores - A healthier diet and/or lifestyle leads to better brain health - If you use diets and exercise, this can improve neuronal functioning in the brain which affects cognition and ultimately affects IQ scores

Answer 99

- Seeing intelligence as a single entity (what’s driving IQ tests) - Seeing intelligence as many things (ex: savant syndrome)

Answer 100

* Found that all early tests of cognitive abilities correlated with one another * Suggested that higher correlations are driven by a common reliance on a single factor * This is general intelligence (g) - Suggests that we have a general intelligence and specific abilities * General Intelligence (g) varies across people but is stable within a person -> genetic basis * Specific abilities (s) are performance on tasks and are affected by education and environment, and vary within a person (ex: like school subjects) - Specific abilities can vary across a person and across individuals -> not stable like g - g is related to genetics, S is related to education or opportunity

Answer 101

Posits that there are 2 forms of intelligence: fluid intelligence (similar to Spearman's g) and crystallized intelligence (similar to Spearman's s)

Answer 102

* Similar to Spearman's g * The capacity to acquire new knowledge and engage in flexible thinking * Considered to be important for all forms of intelligence * Tests of reasoning * Genetic basis - Affected by age (gets worse with age)

Answer 103

* Similar to Spearman's s * Knowledge and learning that has been acquired throughout the lifetime * Stored information * Vocabulary, math * Affected by personality, education, culture * Motivated learning * Gets stable as we get older

Answer 104

- A person who is otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific ability - Ex: artistic skills or mathematical ability - Can be congenital or acquired (new skills after brain injury) - Suggests there are different forms of intelligence, supported by different cognitive processes

Answer 105

* People who acquire specific skills from brain injury * Ex: Case of Tony Cicoria -> after being struck by lightening, a man developed exceptional piano skills or case of Orlando Serell -> ability to perform calendar calculations * To compensate for damage, other areas of the brain will be ‘rewired’, which induces savant-like capabilities - Researchers think acquired savants are due to neuroplasticity

Answer 106

This theory suggests that everyone has certain strengths and weaknesses in their intelligence

Answer 107

* A process view that states that intelligence is not a system or structure * Intelligence is the capacity to automatize information processes and use them in appropriate settings * This can vary - Includes his Triarchic theory of intelligence

Answer 108

1. Meta-component: Higher order processes for planning and decision making. Making decisions about how to solve a problem and about what we wanna do in a certain situation 2. Performance component: Processes for executing a task 3. Knowledge acquisition component: Processes to learn and store new information - These components are thought to be universal and that you can incorporate these with different forms of intelligence

Answer 109

- Analytic intelligence - Practical intelligence - Creative intelligence

Answer 110

- Mental steps or "components" used to solve problems - Analytics is related to Spearman's “g” - People with analytic intelligence are good at solving problems

Answer 111

- Ability to read and adapt to the contexts of everyday life - The ability to apply information to daily ambiguous situations - Emphasizes contextual information - People with this intelligence are able to adjust information to fit the context - Ex: delivery persons who can intelligently navigate routes when there are road-blocks

Answer 112

- Use of experience in ways that foster insight - The ability to think in new ways and apply information flexibly - Emphasizes experiential information - Linked to insight problem solving -> since this form of intelligence involves seeing things in new ways - Often people that are high in this form of intelligence can lead to higher links between things - Stresses novelty

Answer 113

- Emotion affects how we process information and think - We use thinking for our ability to see and manage our emotions - A positive mood leads to broad thinking - A positive mood promotes a general “assimilative thinking” style, and leads to greater susceptibility to misinformation - A negative mood promotes specific “focused thinking” style, and lowers susceptibility to misinformation - Global processing leads to happier moods

Answer 114

- When in a positive mood, people think about information in a more broad way - In a study by Forgas et al. (2005) people were given misleading and non misleading information in various moods - A positive mood promotes a general “assimilative thinking” style, and leads to greater susceptibility to misinformation - This suggests that our positive mood will increase our tendency to make false recognitions of misleading information - A negative mood promotes specific “focused thinking” style, and lowers susceptibility to misinformation

Answer 115

- Study by Chen et al. (2019) where people had to focus on an image, either the full image or just a local area - They tried to engage in global-broad processing or global-focal processing - They then had people rate how happy they felt - Global processing led to happier moods (people rated they were happier in this condition)

Answer 116

- Long-term memory - It's also the final stage in the modal model of memory

Answer 117

- Only a minority - But what does may be retained indefinitely

Answer 118

- Retrieval - We need to be able to access information in long-term memory for several daily processes - Ex: when planning for your evening or the next day -> the ability to do this depends on you accessing previous memories from your long-term stores

Answer 119

You can no longer access it

Answer 120

- While STM retains the specific physical details of the sensory stimulus first used to encode the information, LTM typically retains the abstracted semantic information without specific physical details - This isn't always the case, as sometimes LTM does retain more specific details - Ex: we may recall the words of a song or a poem verbatim - However, for the most part, what's stored for the really long-term is the more abstract meaning, not these kinds of details

Answer 121

Because sometimes, certain memorable and oft-repeated details can be stored in long-term memory

Answer 122

- The behavioral differences between them - This possibility is supported by neuropsychological data as well as from patients with amnesia

Answer 123

Severely impaired long-term memory capacities, typically due to trauma or brain damage

Answer 124

The difficulties experienced by some amnesiacs in encoding new memories

Answer 125

- Retrograde amnesia - Anterograde amnesia

Answer 126

- Form of amnesia that's common following a traumatic brain injury, in which the events leading up to the incident are often forgotten and the memories formed before the trauma of brain damage are lost - The affected person has difficulty remembering information from before the onset of amnesia

Answer 127

- A form of amnesia in which memories formed after the trauma of brain damage are lost - After the onset of anterograde amnesia, the affected person has difficulty remembering any new information that they encounter - However, they may not have compromised memory from before the onset of amnesia - Ex: case of HM

Answer 128

- He was a patient with a severe case of anterograde amnesia - He suffered brain trauma at a young age from falling off his bike which led him to experience severe seizures throughout his life which affected his ability to function in daily life - To treat HM's seizures, doctors decided to remove most of HM's hippocampus and a number of other nearby brain regions from which the seizures were determined to originate - HM recovered from the surgery and no longer experienced severe seizures - His intelligence and cognition were also quite functional (ex: he knew who he was and was able to discuss facts from his past and general knowledge about the world leading up to his surgery) - However, he seemed unable to form any new long-term memories (ex: shortly after events took place in his life, HM had no idea that they had transpired)

Answer 129

- While his LTM was severely compromised, his STM appears to have been intact -> he's been reported as maintaining info in his mind for up to 15 secs - As long as his attention was fixed on the task, he could respond to the information meaningfully - He could repeat a list of words in order or remember the sentence that someone spoke to him in order to reply to it meaningfully - He was able to learn new procedural tasks

Answer 130

- He was a concert pianist and musicologist who suffered damage to his hippocampus due to a rare herpes simplex virus infection that led to encephalitis - He suffered from some retrograde amnesia and was unable to remember the names of his children (though he recalled he had children) or many of the events of his life from before the onset of his disease - However, he did still remember quite a bit from his earlier life such as language, knew his wife, how to play the piano, & basic facts about the world & the proper way to behave in it - His anterograde amnesia was as profound as HM's -> he was unable to form new LTMs and often spoke as if he had been waking up from a long black void without any experiences at all for many years - Like HM, Clive's STM appears to be largely intact -> he can remember events that took place in the past 10-15 secs and is able to respond meaningfully to them - However, after the info has left STM , it slips into the void that he seems to be somewhat aware of, never to be recalled - He was living primarily in his STM, forgetting much of the recent past and unable to encode the present info - His memory was impaired, not other cognitive functions

Answer 131

- The double dissociation - Where each function can be shown to be preserved while the other is compromised

Answer 132

- Sustained brain damage from a motorcycle accident - Was able to form new LTMs about events he encountered but has an STM capacity of only 2-3 items, which places him well outside he normal range - Researchers found that K.F. and another patient had overlapped damage in the left hemisphere near regions of the parietal lobe that contribute to verbal processes - A more pervasive form of K.F.'s condition may be found in Alzheimer's disease

Answer 133

That damage to the hippocampus will give rise to difficulties recalling or encoding information into long-term memory while preserving short-term memory but damage to other cortical regions involved in short, or working, memory processing will selectively damage short-term memory processes while preserving long-term memory functioning

Answer 134

- While most people associate Alzheimer's with long term memory loss, such as the inability to remember people or places encountered across a lifetime, in its early stages, the disease may manifest in the form of impaired short-term memory capabilities & neuropsychologists will sometimes use short-term memory tasks as a tool in diagnosing the onset of the disease - Patients with Alzheimer's perform worse at the delayed-match-to-sample task and show markedly less connectivity between the prefrontal lobe and the hippocampal regions than control groups

Answer 135

The longer the info is retained in STM via rehearsal, the likelier it is that it'll enter into LTM

Answer 136

- A technique for storing information in LTM that involves elaborating on the meaning of the information - This type of rehearsal has consistently been found to lead to greater encoding in LTM

Answer 137

Elaborative rehearsal

Answer 138

From the serial position effect

Answer 139

An effect in memory studies using recall of long words lists in which words at the beginning and end of the list are remembered better than those in the middle of the list

Answer 140

Murdock observed that participants had better performance for info presented to them earlier, & also later right before they were asked to recall all of the information

Answer 141

- A phenomenon in the serial position effect in which words at the beginning of the list are better remembered - Attributed to LTM (Rehearsal -> LTM)

Answer 142

- A phenomenon in the serial position effect in which words at the end of the list are better remembered - Words that come late in a sequence are still likely to be in STM at the time the participant is asked to repeat them, but those in the middle of the list aren't - Attributed to STM - If the study-recall delay duration > 30s, this effect is eliminated

Answer 143

- They tested this by simply providing participants with a list of words but making them wait for 30 secs before recalling the words - Counting backward by 3 for that 30 secs caused the recency effect to disappear - They found that by preventing the storage of info in working memory, the recency effect is diminished

Answer 144

- They proposed that words at the beginning of the sequence have a chance to be rehearsed because there's sufficient time - This rehearsal allows these words to be stored in LTM - In this case, repetition may be contributing to storage in LTM

Answer 145

- It's generally viewed as an ineffective way and that the memory remains robust to forgetting - People often engage in repetition and the info is soon forgotten

Answer 146

- Proposed by Craik & Tulving (1972) - A theory of LTM encoding that holds that depth of meaning during processing determines how likely an item is to be recalled - This theory holds the idea that elaborating on something by considering its meaning more fully and deeply led to better encoding in LTM - In a number of experiments, they found that the more deeply people had processed a word, the better they remembered it

Answer 147

- They presented people with a list of words, one at a time - For each word, they asked them a single yes/no question - There were 3 categories of words: Case (upper/lowercase of word), rhyming, sentence completion - After participants had completed these questions, they were given an unexpected free-recall task in which they had to try to remember as many of the words they had responded to as possible

Answer 148

- They found that participants had the best performance in this task in the sentence condition - They suggested that this good performance was due to the fact that participants had to process the meaning of the word to answer the questions associated with it - In the rhyming condition, the meaning of the word didn't have to be processed, but the sound of it did - They argued that this was an inferior, less deep, form of processing compared to the meaning of the word - In the case condition, participants only had to process the size of the letters without having to even read the word - They argued that this would require the least, or most shallow, processing of all 3 conditions - They also found that when the answer to the question was yes, subjects remembered the words better - They proposed that this was because participants processed the meaning and sound more deeply when they matched the question

Answer 149

A type of memory task in which the experimental subject must simply remember as many items as they can from a memorized list without any cues or prompts

Answer 150

- It's how deeply it was processed initially - The strength of a memory depends on the depth of processing when encoding - Meaning that all the focus is on the encoding stage of memory

Answer 151

Until it can be retrieved from memory to produce a behavioral response

Answer 152

- Efforts to generate retrieval cues that can help you recover your memory - Ex: trying to remember a thought by imagining yourself in the same place where you were when you first had the thought - Using mnemonic devices and imagery can improve your memory - Creating structures using techniques like chunking helps to both organize the information for encoding and further organize it to cue retrieval

Answer 153

- A memory short-cut or technique used to help improve your memory - Organizational strategies that help encode to-be-remembered information - Often involves deep processing and chunking - Types of mnemonics: * Naming mnemonic: "ROY G. BIV" for the colors of the rainbow * Story mnemonic: Create a story out of a list of words * Method of Loci: Associate pieces of information with a location or a visual image

Answer 154

He presented research that suggested that retrieval can sometimes be the critical factor in what's remembered, sometimes even more important than the depth of initial processing

Answer 155

- He presented experimental subjects with words using the rhyme and sentence conditions employed by Craik and Tulving (1972) & tested their ability to remember the words in a free-recall task - He also included a cued-recall test - Consistent with C & T (1972) he found that participants performed best on the free-recall task for items that had been deeply processed - He also found that participants showed increased memory for shallow processed words if the test matched the learning phase - He found that participants performed better in the cued-recall task when they had encoded words based on rhyming - He found that the level of processing wasn't consistently helpful

Answer 156

He called the effect of participants performing better in the cued-recall task when they had encoded words based on rhyming -> transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 157

- The idea that how well information is remembered depends not only on how it was initially encoded, but also on how well some later memory cue matches the way it was encoded - An account for which info is remembered in LTM that emphasizes a match in form between when the info is initially encoded and when it's retrieved Ex: if words were encoded based on their sounds, then a cue to their sound led to better retrieval than when the word was encoded based on its meaning

Answer 158

This may be attributable to the fact that subjects were able to use the original questions as cues to retrieve the remembered list

Answer 159

- They had subjects learn lists of words that were members of different categories, such as examples of birds or furniture - They then compared performance in a free-recall test without any cues to when subjects were given the category labels as cues - Results: when participants had no cues, they only remembered 40% of the words, while with the cues they remembered 75%

Answer 160

- Idea of Endel Tulving - A principle in LTM retrieval in which a match in condition between encoding and retrieval facilitates recall - Memory retrieval is better when there is overlap with encoding context - Context can act as a retrieval cue - Context can be: internal state (e.g., mood) and external environment (e.g., room)

Answer 161

- They had people study a list of words either when they were underwater wearing a scubagear, or when they were standing on land - He then tested their ability to recall the list of words, again either underwater or on land - 1/2 of the subjects had to do the recall task when the study and test conditions were congruent/matched - Ex: if subjects initially studied the list on land, they did the recall test on land & if they initially studied the list underwater, they were tested underwater - The other 1/2 of subjects had study and test conditions that were incongruent/mismatched - Ex: if they studied the list on land, they were tested underwater and if they studied underwater, they were tested on land

Answer 162

- They found that performance wasn't greatly affected by whether the subjects encoded or recalled the info on land or on water - What did matter was whether the study & test conditions matched - They found that being in the same environment as when they learned the list of words helped them remember them later on (context-dependent memory)

Answer 163

- A memory benefit when the external conditions (such as location or background noise) match between encoding and retrieval - When testing and learning match

Answer 164

- A memory benefit when the internal conditions (such as mood) match between encoding and retrieval - Research supports that when our internal states or moods are congruent, we additionally have improved memory - Ex: when participants were put into a happy or sad mood (using emotion-inducing videos or a suggestive process), people performed the memory task better when the conditions matched between the initial encoding and the later test of memory

Answer 165

- Associations between experiences of the world - In many cases, these associations are meaningful, such as the schemas that allow us to infer what kind of objects are likely to be in a certain environment - This allows us to make useful guesses such as assuming what objects are present in the kitchen or living room even without seeing them - To do this, the brain has to encode associations between those environments and the objects within them

Answer 166

- The brain may not have a means of distinguishing between meaningful and incident associations - Ex: if certain words are present when you're underwater, this leads to these experiences being encoded as well (even if this is an incidental association) - Your brain may not have a way to filter out these "meaningless" associations -> instead, it encodes and uses them

Answer 167

- The important role of elaboration and organization on later retrieval - The spacing effect - The testing effect

Answer 168

- A benefit in LTM when information is repeated over spaced out intervals - States that memory is better when the same amount of learning is spread out over time - When people are exposed to repeated info over multiple spaced-out periods, this is more effective in later recall than when the info is repeated over a short time period - Ex: when studying for an exam, it's best to study the info multiple times in a spaced-out fashion rather than cramming an all-nighter

Answer 169

- In a large-scale study, they found that the best spacing interval to use depends on when the info will need to be retrieved - In particular, they found that it's best to space info around 10-20% of the interval at which it'll need to be later retrieved - Ex: if you're taking an exam in a week, it makes sense to space study sessions with about a day between them. If you're taking it in a month, then 3-5 days spacing will be more effective

Answer 170

- A LTM benefit that occurs when people retrieve info on their own rather than observing it passively -> this makes them remember it better - This is likely because each time you have to recall info, it forces you to re-engage with it more actively

Answer 171

Deeply rooted

Answer 172

- Memory for all info that can be verbally reported (includes semantic and episodic memory) - The kind of memory where "we know what we know" - Involves a conscious recollection

Answer 173

- Episodic memory - Semantic memory

Answer 174

- Memory of events that have happened directly to us that can be recalled in a sequence as they occurred with sensory imagery - Phenomenon called "mental time travel" - This kind of memory is sometimes called "autobiographical" because it includes a first person type of experience - Encoding and recollecting information about specific events and episodes - You have to remember the context of the memory (recalling an event/episode) - Retrieve encoding context (what, where and when) - Ex: remembering halloween episode of the office - Dependent on the hippocampus

Answer 175

- A form of explicit/declarative memory in which the info is recalled as a set of facts and general information without mental time travel (no retrieval of context of learning) - When explicit memory only consists of information, without the ability to recall sensory details of an experience - In this case, the info is something you simply know without having the experience of mental time travel - Ex: the meaning of words, your address, someone's name - Ex: remembering that Michael Scott is the office manager

Answer 176

- Semantic, not episodic memory - Ex: imagine that at your 6th bday party, your parents provided you with a fruit tart instead of a cake. You would remember that episodic event; however, you may have most likely had a general idea, or representation, of what childhood birthday parties typically contain (ex: balloons, cake, hats, & friends) - This general semantic memory is formed from all your personal experiences, movies, or stories you've heard - Over our lifetime, we learn a great deal during our interaction with the world and the people and objects within it, but you may have little to no memory of the experience that led to the learning. You likely only recall the experience itself

Answer 177

- Episodic - Semantic memory - But there's evidence that episodic and semantic memory are distinct from one another

Answer 178

- K.C. suffered damage to his hippocampus and surrounding areas in a motorcycle accident - He had no episodic memory and wasn't able to mentally relive previous episodes of his life - Despite this, some of his semantic memory appears to have been intact to the point that he could learn new info such as the fact that he had a brother who had died

Answer 179

- After suffering from encephalitis causing inflammation of the brain, the patient had an intact episodic memory and could create and remember events in her life with a sense of mental time travel - However, she showed severe deficits in semantic memory, such as the meaning of words and the identities of famous people or events in history

Answer 180

- They had participants record themselves describing basic facts about the world (ex: the capital of Russia is Moscow) as well as describing events from their own lives - Later, the researchers recorded brain activity using fMRI as the participants listened to the different recordings - They found a different network was activated when participants listened to the 2 different types of recordings - When they heard the basic facts (presumably triggering semantic memory), the primary areas that became active were those in frontal and parietal lobes - These are regions that engage in executive function and decision making - When they listened to the events from their lives (presumably triggering episodic memory), a diff network was engaged including the occipital and temporal lobes - These are areas that are involved in encoding sensory information - Hence, episodic memory depends on the reactivation of the same brain regions that were first engaged in encoding the experience while semantic memory depends on more abstracted representations

Answer 181

- Non-declarative and non-conscious - A form of LTM in which the individual doesn't have explicit awareness of knowing the info but where the info has indirect effects on behaviour - This concerns info that's encoded, stored & retrieved - This retrieval isn't in the form of info about which you're consciously aware (that would be declarative) but rather in terms of indirect effects on behaviour

Answer 182

Procedural memory

Answer 183

- A form of implicit memory that consists of knowledge of how to perform a task - Memories for action - This form of memory consists of learned abilities to perform some automatic behavioural actions such as walking, swimming, or riding a bike - However, people can't access what they've learned in terms of something they can verbalize - Rather, the body knows what to do based on the brain having encoded a pattern of movements - It's particularly immune to forgetting compared to other types of memory - The durability of procedural memory extends to people who are the most prone to forgetting -> those with amnesia

Answer 184

Procedural memory

Answer 185

Implicit memory

Answer 186

An inclination to automatically (& possibly unconsciously) judge something or someone negatively or positively based on past experiences, even when those previous experiences are outside of conscious awareness - While it's often seen in a negative light, there's evidence that prejudice is highly pervasive across many people with regard to certain groups of people

Answer 187

- Greenwald and colleagues (1998) developed it - It's an online test that has been proposed as being able to detect underlying biases that people may have towards certain groups of people - It uses a technique in which participants must make decisions, as quickly as they can, about whether certain words belong to one category or another as well as whether certain names or words pertain to a certain group of people or another - Typical results of the IAT are that people often take longer to produce the correct responses when the same response pertains to categories that conflict according to certain societal biases vs. when they are consistent - Ex: if a participant is using a left button press to designate a word as belonging to the science category, they may be found to take longer to use that same response to designate a name as female compared with male - This is interpreted to indicate that the participant has a preconception that science is more suitable to males than females - This result has been found across many different typical stereotypical attributes of certain groups and attributes - While the meaning of these results is debated, some believe this suggests many people carry prejudicial attitudes towards certain groups of people, even when people aren't aware they may carry such prejudices - These results demonstrate that certain associations, although implicit, are pervasive and can influence behavior

Answer 188

- While prejudice is perhaps the most commonly discussed form of implicit memory relating to pre-judging people or things, implicit bias doesn't need to be negative - In some cases, people may be more likely to judge someone or something favorably based on some implicit bias as well -> ex: familiarity effect

Answer 189

- A phenomenon in which people will tend to rate something that they have encountered before more favourably than something completely unfamiliar - Perfect & Askew (1994) found that participants rated magazine ads more favorably when they had previously seen them, even when they didn't remember having seen them

Answer 190

- A phenomenon in which people will tend to rate statements that they've heard before as being more likely to be true than those they haven't heard before - Begg et al. (1992) found that people who were presented with statements they had heard before were more likely to rate them as true compared with statements they had never heard - This was true even if they had previously been told the original statements were untrue - It appears Ps forgot they had heard the statements before, but retained a sense of familiarity that led them to judge them more positively

Answer 191

- Procedural memory - Prejudice - Conditioning/priming

Answer 192

- A form of implicit memory - Refers to more stable and long-term learned associations - Over a lifetime, we learn to associate certain kinds of objects with certain physiological responses and sometime we may not be aware of these associations but they'll guide our behaviour - Ex: phobias may occur due to an early negative experience with a type of object -> while the experience may be forgotten, the fear may not - In the same way the rat in the fear chamber associates stimuli with a fear response, we can form fear in response to environmental stimuli - Certain flavors or smells may be associated with positive experiences (ex: comfort and nourishment) or negative experiences (ex: sickness). This may lead to a strong liking or disliking of these stimuli even when the original associations are long forgotten

Answer 193

- This type of memory appears to be dependent on areas outside of the hippocampus but still within the limbic system - Support for the amygdala in implicit fear conditioning comes from case studies

Answer 194

A pair of almond-shaped nuclei located in the 2 temporal lobes

Answer 195

- S.M. had an unusual genetic disorder which resulted in bilateral amygdala damage - Researchers believe that because of this she experiences an absence of fear - Ex: they have tried to induce fear in S.M. by exposing her to stimuli that typically increases fear in others and recorded her internal rating of fear and uneasiness - S.M. was exposed to live snakes and spiders, was brought to a haunted house and was exposed to movie clips meant to induce fear - Throughout the study, the researchers recorded formal and informal ratings of fear - S.M. told the researchers that she didn't care for snakes, however, on a scale of 0-10 for level of fear, S.M. never rose above 2 while holding snakes for several mins - The researchers informally reported her adventurousness at a haunted house which was rated one of the scariest locations in America and formally reported her fear level remaining at 0 throughout the attraction - Other researchers have also demonstrated that S.M. struggles to easily recognize fear in others' facial expressions

Answer 196

- Implicit - Explicit

Answer 197

- A team of researchers trained H.M. to do a mirror-drawing task, which consists of copying a picture when you can only see a reflection of your hands and what you're drawing in a mirror - This task requires learning a new mapping between your actions and the resulting image - H.M., who had never performed this task before, was introduced to it over multiple sessions - The researchers found that H.M.’s performance improved over repeated sessions, even though he had no memory he had ever done the task before

Answer 198

More stable changes taking place within various brain structures

Answer 199

- Synaptic consolidation - Systems consolidation

Answer 200

- Experiences are encoded and then consolidated into a long-term memory trace - The formation of stable cortical representations of memories - The process of making memories durable, & in some cases, permanent

Answer 201

- Changes at the synapses between neurons that lead to long-term storage of memories - This process takes place at the synapses, the space between neurons where the neurotransmitters pass from one neuron to another in order to alter its rate of action potentials - Because all of the info encoded in the brain ultimately depends on these synaptic connections, changes to these connections changes the info in the brain - The most common type of change at the synapse is called long-term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 202

- A form of synaptic consolidation in which a receiving neuron becomes more likely to fire in response to the stimulation of a sending neuron - More likely to fire overtime based on the same number of incoming neurotransmitters - Possible outcomes for this: the sending neuron releases more neurotransmitters OR the receiving neuron develops more receptor sites for the neurotransmitters to bind with - The structural changes in LTP can actually happen quite quickly, over the course of minutes & can lead to a relatively stable change in the brain that can store LTM from hours to as long as months - Overtime, LTP may increase the neurotransmitters or receptors making the receiving neuron fire more frequently whenever the stimulus that causes the sending neuron to fire is present - While LTP can store memories for a long time, it's not as durable as systems consolidation

Answer 203

- A process of making LTMs more durable based on connections between cortical areas - Thought to be orchestrated by the hippocampus - This consolidation depends on more permanent changes that take place by laying down new connections between neurons in the cortex - It relies on the activity of the hippocampus working together with the cortex - Whatever its mechanism, it can lead to permanent memories that last a lifetime - However, this process is much slower than synaptic consolidation, taking place over days, weeks, or even years - As time goes on, memories that are consolidated in this way tend to become more and more stable

Answer 204

- Source of debate - Some researchers have proposed that the hippocampus initially stores memories and then "moves" them to the cortex as a more permanent form of memory - Alternatively, some have argued that memory isn't stored in the hippocampus at all but that its role is to coordinate storage in the cortex

Answer 205

Hippocampal replay

Answer 206

- A phenomenon that has been observed in the hippocampus of multiple animal species in which a sequence of brain activity that has been observed during behavioral activity, such as exploring a maze, is repeated or "replayed" after the initial encoding event - The sequence during replay is typically faster than the initial activity but has the same temporal order and may represent some form of episodic memory (although without the verbal component it is hard to say whether a rodent is experiencing mental time travel) - Some researchers have proposed that this replay is essential in systems consolidation

Answer 207

1. First, we have the existing connections in a naive brain that has not yet encoded some association 2. During encoding, 2 (or more) cortical regions are co-activated, an event that is recorded by the hippocampus Ex: an encoding of the association between the bell and the food in Pavlov's dog example 3. During replay, the co-activation activity is regenerated by the hippocampus, reinforcing the connectivity between the cortical regions 4. After consolidation, mature connections are in place between the cortical regions and the hippocampus is no longer needed in order for the co-activation to occur

Answer 208

- This can be seen in cases in which someone receives trauma to the brain (ex: due to a car accident) - In such cases, the victim of the accident will often suffer from retrograde amnesia whose severity is worse depending on how close to the accident it occurred - This happens because if the hippocampus sustains damage or disruption, then the events happening immediately before have a chance to be consolidated - Those events that took place a bit longer ago received some consolidation, while those that took place a long time ago might be permanently consolidated and no longer dependent on hippocampal activity - The fact that we can see some effect on memories that go back months or years suggests that these memories continue to be consolidated for a long time

Answer 209

- Pattern separation = encoding - Pattern consolidation = storage - Pattern completion = retrieval

Answer 210

- Pattern separation = at encoding - Pattern completion (built back together = retrieval

Answer 211

Long-term memory

Answer 212

Important for gripping and grasping objects

Answer 213

* Neuroimaging studies: Different areas of the brain are active for visual and verbal STM tasks * Double dissociation in neuropsychological cases - Patient ELD has problems recalling visual-spatial but not verbal material in the short term - Patient PV has problems recalling verbal but not visual material in the short term

Answer 214

- One of the first people to mentally investigate how we retained information - Tested how encoded nonsense syllables were retained and forgotten from memory over time (ex: HES, VRA, MAG, ZOF) - He created over 2000 cards of nonsense syllables - He learned and relearned sets of the syllables under strict testing conditions - He read the syllables without any inflection - Read them at a consistently fast pace: 2.5 items/second - Did nothing else while running these experiments - Used non-sense syllables to avoid prior knowledge affecting his results

Answer 215

- A plot of rates of forgetting the syllables overtime - It slows down overtime - This demonstrated that forgetting is exponential -> memory loss is largest early on and slows down

Answer 216

- Shallow processing: focus on sensory information Ex: looking at words and highlighting them - Deep processing: integrate higher-level knowledge (things we know) Ex: linking information together - Memory is stronger with deep processing

Answer 217

- Task 1: upright/inverted - Task 2: actor/politician - Found that people recognized faces more and had slower reaction times in the deep encoding condition than the shallow encoding condition - Inverted faces aren’t processed as well

Answer 218

- AKA mind palace - Type of mnemonic - Associate pieces of information with a location or a visual image - Anything that’s viceral or shocking for mnemonics helps with remembering them

Answer 219

- 3 participant groups * Mnemonic training group * Active control group * Passive control group - Memory assessed with word lists at: * 20 minutes, 24 hour and 4 months - Measured the change in the number of words remembered at these timepoints - Only the group who used the method of loci were able to remember the most words from the list - From scanning the brain, there were different neural connections for people who use to method of loci

Answer 220

- No - It’s really about forming different connections in the brain

Answer 221

* Review your work regularly at shorter sessions (spacing effect) * Focus on important material at the beginning and end of sessions (primacy and recency effects) * Link what you are learning to what you know (depth of processing)

Answer 222

- Central Executive -> prefrontal cortex - Episodic Buffer -> parietal lobe - Phonological loop -> Broca's & Wernicke's areas - Visuo-spatial sketch-pad -> occipital lobe - Attention controller ->ACC

Answer 223

Ex: How many windows are in your house? * Episodic buffer – access information from LTM * Visuospatial sketchpad – imagine the layout * Phonological loop - count the number of windows * Central executive - guide the process

Answer 224

1. Do these adjectives describe you? Happy, Talkative 2. Are these common words? Happy, Talkative * The first condition led to better memory

Answer 225

1. Read these pairs: king – crown; horse - saddle 2. Generate the word: K___g – crown; H___e-saddle * The second led to better memory

Answer 226

Self-reference task

Answer 227

- 2 groups of participants were asked to code and study sentences and images when they were sober and 2 groups when they were drunk - 1 of the 2 groups tested sober was then recalling when drunk - 1 of the 2 groups tested drunk was then recalling when sober - The learning was stronger when sober than when drunk - People in the same state as when they were first encoding the memory recalled more than those in a mismatched group

Answer 228

- In children with hippocampal damage - They would test the childrens’ episodic memory by getting them to copy images and then copy them with different delays after being exposed to them - At a delay, the children couldn’t recall the images well - Their episodic memory impairment: can't copy images after a delay - Semantic memory preservation: normal factual knowledge - Shows that episodic is dependent on the hippocampus

Answer 229

- This form of dementia is related to alzheimer’s disease - Relatively spared at episodic memory tasks - Impaired at word naming and picture matching tasks - Impaired at any task that requires them to recall general information or facts

Answer 230

- Famous case of amnesia - Has impaired episodic memory but can still access some semantic memories - Patient KC can answer semantic questions about his past but can’t tell you anything about specific episodes

Answer 231

- Anoetic Consciousness - Noetic Consciousness - Autonoetic Consciousness

Answer 232

- Personal semantics - Form of semantic memory - Consist of autobiographical facts (ex: my brother's name is Nicholas) and repeated events (ex: I brought my brother to school every day) - Neuropsychological patterns: autobiographical facts = similar to GS and repeated events = similar to EM

Answer 233

That recent fMRI studies have shown significant neural overlap between semantic and episodic memories

Answer 234

- Semantic knowledge can affect the ability to retrieve detailed instances (can override access to specific details) - Ex: sculptures of bikes indicating that people are forgetting a lot of important details of a bike

Answer 235

* An episodic memory trace is recalled the same way at each retrieval * It is reproduced, not reconstructed * This is based on clinical observations that recurrent memories are unchanged from the original event in cases like PTSD * Maybe we have memories in the brain that are fixed and can’t change and are usually highly emotional in nature -> this could explain PTSD

Answer 236

- Vivid memories of significant events that are: emotionally arousing or shocking public events and that retrieve specific details about the time and place when hearing about the event - The reappearance hypothesis suggests that these are imprinted in the mind - Ex: when Donald Trump was elected for presidency - Flashbulb memories are not recurrent recordings of events - Flashbulb memory retrieval changes over time and are not resistant to memory distortion, even though memory feels strong for these events (distinction between subjective and objective memory) - They accept the theory that memories are reconstructed

Answer 237

* When a trace representation becomes activated, it becomes de-stable - Once the memory case is fragile, open or unstable when opening it, you have to reconsolidate that memory * Cortical connections can be strengthened and modified during this time, which alters how the memory trace is reconsolidated * Retrieval changes a memory trace - Re-consolidation window is about an hour long

Answer 238

* Reconstructing memories at retrieval opens them up to distortion * We may infer the way things “must have been” in a recalled memory based on our schemas (interplay with semantic memory) * We may include new and false information in the underlying memory trace - Reconstructing memories is helpful -> helps us imagine future events

Answer 239

* Schemas organize and categorize information, provide expectations about how things should occur * Bartlett's (1932) The War of Ghosts experiments - Participants read an unfamiliar Native American folk story - Content: young men hunting seals in a river with unfamiliar supernatural details - Didn't match Western folk story structure (schema) - Examined how the story changed with repeated retrievals - Participants remembered a simplified version of the story and it became more conventional with repeated retrievals - Engaged in assimilation: changing new, learned information to match our schemas - Omissions and alterations to match Western schema - Excluded uncommon details; “a black thing rushed out of his mouth” - Changed uncommon activities to conventional activities, according to their schemas: Hunting seals became fishing

Answer 240

* Ps had to study scenes associated with schema- consistent items removed (ex: classroom without a chalkboard) * Were given auditory word recognition test for items from the scenes & others not in the image but reflecting the schemas: * Studied items: “Desks” * Schema-related lures: “Chalkboard” * Non-schema-related items: “Ball” - People falsely identified the lure words onto the list, because these lures activate semantic memory - Illustrates the influence semantic memory (expectations) on episodic memory

Answer 241

1. A familiar feeling can lead to incorrect associations 2. Details can be added to memories during retrieval 3. During memory construction, information could be added through suggestion

Answer 242

* Retrieving familiar information from the wrong source (place) * A failure in source monitoring (not remembering the where or when accurately) - Misattributing something to the wrong location or event

Answer 243

* Leading questions can cause false memory formation * Ex: participants viewed a simulated car crash and after, asked: * “how fast were the cars going when they CONTACTED each other?” * “how fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other?” - CONCLUSION: how a question is framed can affect how information is remembered - How you frame your question can affect how people retrieve or what they retrieve from their memory

Answer 244

* Participants recalled childhood experiences recounted by their parents over 3 experimental sessions * A false memory was added to the list of experiences by the experimenter (ex: an overnight stay in a hospital) * 20% of people had a false memory of this event by the end of the third session

Answer 245

* The same processes that help us construct the past help us imagine the future and plan for our lives * These are processes of the hippocampal episodic memory system - There’s overlap between the neural activity of remembering a past event and thinking about future experiences

Answer 246

Context-dependent learning

Memory & Intelligence Flashcards

(271 cards)