Define independent, dependent and extraneous variables.
Independent: intentionally changed to observe its effect
Dependent: variable being tested and measured
Extraneous: variables that could influence results, need to be controlled
3 examples of participant, situational and experimenter variables.
Participant: mood, lifestyle, culture
Situational: time of day, temperature, background noise
Experimenter: bias, participant interactions, body language
8 ethical considerations in psychological experiments.
- Do no harm
- Confidentiality/anonymity
- Informed consent
- Voluntary participation
- Right to withdraw
- Debriefing (especially after deception)
- Accurate reporting of results
- Professional conduct
List and explain the three main memory processes.
Encoding: Information is encoded into a storable form (visual, acoustic, or semantic)
Storage: Information is retained in memory for later use
Retrieval: Information is recovered from memory into conscious awareness
What is the function, capacity and duration of Sensory, Short-Term and Long-Term memory?
Sensory: Initial processing of stimuli, unlimited, 0.3-4 seconds
STM: Temporarily holds information in awareness, 18-30 seconds, 7 items (+/- 2)
LTM: Permanent storage of information, unlimited, unlimited
Explain Sensory, Short-Term and Long-Term memory.
Sensory: Information is immediately stored in its exact sensory form (either echoic or iconic), information we pay attention to is sent to STM, other information is lost.
STM: Receives and encodes information from sensory memory, receives information from LTM for temporary use - holds all information you are currently thinking about/consciously aware of
LTM: Stores unlimited information for a considerable time, and can be retrieved into STM - includes explicit & implict memories
Compare echoic and iconic memory (type of memory & storage time)
Echoic: sound memories, stored for 3-4 seconds
Iconic: visual memories, stored for 0.3 seconds
What are the two parts of the Serial Position Effect?
Primacy effect: superior recall for items at the beginning of a list (enough time to reach LTM through acoustic rehearsal)
Recency effect: superior recall for items at the end of a list (stays in STM)
Explain 3 strategies to help increase short-term memory.
Chunking: storing groups of items (increases capacity, can remember fewer, larger chunks instead of many unrelated items)
Rehearsal: strengthens neural connections associated with information by extending time in STM (eg. repeating facts for an exam)
Mnemonics: organising information to make it meaningful and easier to retrieve
What are some common types of mnemonics, and why are they useful?
Acronyms: compress information into a single, memorable unit to simplify recall (type of chunking)
Acrostics: connects words through meaning to improve retrieval cues, useful for lists/sequences
Rhymes/songs: uses rhythm/rhyme/melody to engage acoustic encoding
Method of Loci: associates information with locations to engage spatial memory for organised recall
Difference between explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory (and the types of each).
Explicit: memory with awareness, can consciously declare & express the information (episodic & semantic)
Implicit: memory without awareness, cannot clearly or consciously explain the memory (procedural & emotional conditioning)
Define and give an example of episodic, semantic and procedural memory.
Episodic: Experienced events - memories/events we have personally experienced, eg. birthday party, eating breakfast
Semantic: Knowledge & concepts - memories of facts, figures, general knowledge, eg. trivia facts, times tables
Procedural: Skills & actions - memories involve motor skills and actions, eg. brushing teeth, riding a bike
What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia?
Retrograde: inability to recall past memories
Anterograde: inability to create new memories
What are 2 biological, psychological and social causes of retrograde amnesia?
Biological: brain damage via injury, neurodegenerative disease (eg. Alzheimer’s)
Psychological: PTSD (memory loss as defence mechanism for overwhelming trauma), high stress
Social: abuse/neglect (traumatic, dissociation), isolation (no emotional support or retrieval help)
What are 2 biological, psychological and social treatments of retrograde amnesia, and their benefits and consequences?
Biological: addressing underlying causes - 1) head trauma = removing blood clots, relieving pressure, repairing fractures - 2) Alzheimer’s = medication
Without it: continued/permanent brain damage, worsened amnesia, cognitive decline
Psychological: 1) CBT = manage psychological impact (anxiety/depression), develop coping strategies, 2) Psychotherapy = talk through trauma
Without it: heightened anxiety/depression, difficulty coping, unprocessed trauma can cause dissociation
Social: 1) Family support = safe/supportive environment, recall through familiar cues, 2) Support groups = meet others experiencing memory loss, community, practical advice
Without it: isolation, confusion, no shared understanding/validation, lack of retrieval cues
