1
Q
What are mental abilities?
A
Higher-order cognitive processes — what we can do with our mind, such as reasoning, remembering, understanding, and problem-solving.
2
Q
What is cognitive functioning?
A
The capacity for reasoning, remembering, understanding, and solving problems — often equated with intelligence.
3
Q
Who was Kim Peek and why is he significant?
A
A savant with no corpus callosum and an IQ of 87, yet had exceptional memory and calendar calculation abilities.
4
Q
Who is Jason Padgett?
A
An acquired savant who developed extraordinary mathematical and artistic abilities after a brain injury.
5
Q
How common is intellectual disability in Australia?
A
Affects about 1.8% of the population and is associated with a 27-year lower life expectancy.
6
Q
How is intellectual disability classified in the DSM-5-TR?
A
Under neurodevelopmental or neurocognitive disorders.
7
Q
What is Gottfredson’s (1997) definition of intelligence?
A
A general mental capability involving reasoning, planning, problem-solving, abstract thinking, comprehension, and learning from experience.
8
Q
Why is studying intelligence important?
A
To understand cognition, assist individuals with impairments, study environmental and educational influences, and for practical applications like job or school selection.
9
Q
What is a construct?
A
A theoretical concept used to explain observed phenomena, such as intelligence.
10
Q
What is a latent variable?
A
A hidden, unobservable concept (e.g., intelligence) that must be inferred from measurable data.
11
Q
What is a manifest variable?
A
An observable, measurable indicator (e.g., test scores) used to infer a latent variable.
12
Q
What is operationalisation?
A
Turning a theoretical construct into measurable variables, guided by a strong theoretical framework.
13
Q
What are implicit theories of intelligence?
A
Everyday, intuitive beliefs about intelligence that are often unconscious and not based on research.
14
Q
What is the entity theory of intelligence?
A
The belief that intelligence is fixed and innate.
15
Q
What is the incremental theory of intelligence?
A
The belief that intelligence is malleable and can grow through effort.
16
Q
What did Blackwell et al. (2007) find about implicit theories?
A
Students with incremental beliefs showed improved grades and persistence, while those with entity beliefs showed stagnant performance.
17
Q
What did Costa & Faria’s (2018) meta-analysis reveal?
A
Cultural differences: incremental beliefs linked with achievement in Asia/Oceania, entity beliefs linked with achievement in Europe, and negatively related in North America.
18
Q
What are explicit theories of intelligence?
A
Formal, research-based models such as Spearman’s g, Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, and Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory.
19
Q
What is Spearman’s theory of intelligence?
A
The idea of a general intelligence factor (g) underlying all cognitive abilities.
20
Q
What is Gardner’s theory of intelligence?
A
The theory of Multiple Intelligences — linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, etc.
21
Q
What is Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory?
A
Proposes three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
22
Q
How are mental abilities related to intelligence?
A
Intelligence is a central component of mental abilities, representing overall cognitive capacity.
23
Q
What is the relationship between intelligence and test scores?
A
Intelligence is a latent construct inferred from manifest variables like test scores.
24
Q
How do implicit theories affect performance?
A
They influence motivation and responses to failure — incremental beliefs foster resilience, while entity beliefs can hinder improvement.
25
What do explicit theories of intelligence provide?
Structured, research-driven frameworks to study intelligence systematically.
26
Key takeaway: What defines mental abilities?
They encompass higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, memory, and understanding.
27
Key takeaway: What are the two major views of intelligence?
Implicit theories (personal beliefs) and explicit theories (scientific models).
28
Key takeaway: Why is intelligence a latent variable?
Because it cannot be observed directly and must be inferred through performance measures.
29
Why was intelligence testing developed in France?
To identify children struggling in school and needing extra support (commissioned by the French government in 1904).
30
Who created the first standardised test of mental ability?
Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon.
31
What was the purpose of the Binet-Simon Scale (1905)?
To assess children's mental ability and identify those needing special educational assistance.
32
What were the key features of the Binet-Simon Scale?
Standardised administration and scoring, uniform for all children, and objective scoring for comparability.
33
What type of tasks were in the Binet-Simon Scale?
Tasks increasing in difficulty, such as naming objects, memory, and reasoning problems.
34
What did the 1908 revision of the Binet-Simon Scale introduce?
Age norms and graded tasks grouped by cognitive complexity.
35
How were age norms determined in the Binet-Simon test?
By finding tasks that 75% of children at each age could successfully complete.
36
What is 'mental age' according to Binet?
The age level of the most difficult task a child can complete successfully.
37
Give an example of mental age calculation.
If a 5-year-old performs at the level of a 7-year-old, their mental age is 7.
38
What did Binet believe about intelligence?
It is not fixed and can develop through education and environment.
39
How did Binet view eugenic ideas?
He opposed them, believing intelligence should not be seen as innate or unchangeable.
40
Who was Francis Galton?
A polymath and cousin of Charles Darwin who developed early ideas on heredity, correlation, and eugenics.
41
What did Galton believe about intelligence?
That it was hereditary and measurable through sensory discrimination tasks (later disproven).
42
What scientific contributions did Galton make?
Developed correlation and regression statistics, twin studies, and the lexical hypothesis of personality.
43
What ideology did Galton found?
Eugenics – selective breeding to 'improve' intelligence.
44
Who developed the Stanford-Binet test?
Lewis Terman (1916), revising Binet’s original test for American use.
45
What were Terman’s beliefs about intelligence?
He viewed intelligence as inherited and stable, supporting the identification of 'gifted' individuals.
46
What harmful stance did Terman take?
He supported eugenic policies restricting reproduction of those with low IQ.
47
What was Henry Goddard’s role in intelligence testing?
He applied intelligence tests to immigrants at Ellis Island and promoted eugenic policies.
48
How did Goddard misuse intelligence testing?
He used culturally biased, English-only tests to classify immigrants as 'feebleminded.'
49
What social policies were influenced by Goddard’s work?
Institutionalisation and sterilisation of people deemed to have low intelligence.
50
What were the historical classifications of intellectual disability?
‘Idiot’ (<2 years mental age), ‘Imbecile’ (3–7 years), ‘Feebleminded’ (8–12 years), and ‘Moron’ (13+ years).
51
Why are these historical terms problematic?
They were offensive and reinforced stigma and discrimination.
52
What were the negative impacts of intelligence testing?
Justified racist and classist policies, reinforced hierarchies, and legitimised eugenics.
53
What were the positive contributions of intelligence testing?
Improved special education, clinical assessment, aptitude testing, and cross-cultural research.
54
Who was E. Morris Miller?
An Australian psychologist who influenced the Tasmanian Mental Deficiency Act (1920) and advocated for care of intellectually disabled individuals.
55
Who was Constance Davey?
First Australian woman with a PhD in psychology; established special education services and teacher training in South Australia.
56
What did Constance Davey contribute to education?
Founded special classes, vocational training, teacher education, and policy advocacy for children with disabilities.
57
What was Binet’s legacy in intelligence testing?
He viewed testing as a tool for support, not labelling, and laid the foundations for modern intelligence assessment.
58
What was the overall legacy of early intelligence testing?
It advanced psychological measurement and education but also contributed to discrimination and eugenics.
59
What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?
An approach that quantifies and measures psychological traits such as intelligence using tests.
60
What are the two main qualities of a useful intelligence test?
Reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy).
61
What is reliability in testing?
The extent to which a test produces stable and consistent results.
62
What is test-retest reliability?
The stability of test results over time (e.g., taking a test today and next week with similar results).
63
What is internal consistency?
The degree to which test items within the same test measure the same construct.
64
What is inter-rater reliability?
The level of agreement between different evaluators or raters.
65
What happens if a test lacks reliability?
Scores become unstable and cannot be trusted.
66
What is validity in intelligence testing?
The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
67
What is construct validity?
Whether the test truly captures the theoretical construct it is designed to measure.
68
What is content validity?
Whether the test covers the full domain of the construct being assessed.
69
What is predictive validity?
Whether the test can accurately predict future relevant outcomes (e.g., academic success).
70
What happens if a test lacks validity?
Even if reliable, the scores are meaningless because they don't measure the intended construct.
71
Who introduced the concept of 'mental age'?
Alfred Binet – it refers to the age level of the hardest task successfully completed.
72
Who introduced the Ratio IQ formula?
William Stern in 1914, later adopted by Lewis Terman in 1916.
73
What is the formula for Ratio IQ?
IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100.
74
Why is Ratio IQ problematic in adults?
Because age standardisation breaks down after mid-teens, leading to uneven scaling.
75
What replaced Ratio IQ and why?
Deviation IQ, because it compares individuals to age-group norms rather than using mental age.
76
What is the mean and standard deviation of modern IQ tests?
Mean = 100, Standard Deviation = 15.
77
What is an example of deviation IQ interpretation?
IQ 115 = 1 SD above mean; IQ 85 = 1 SD below mean.
78
What are the advantages of Deviation IQ?
Reflects relative performance, works across lifespan, statistically robust, norm-referenced.
79
Which major tests use Deviation IQ?
WISC (children) and WAIS (adults).
80
How is IQ used in education?
To identify giftedness, learning difficulties, and to tailor educational support.
81
How is IQ used in clinical psychology?
For diagnosing intellectual disabilities, learning disorders, and cognitive impairments.
82
What is the correlation between IQ and academic performance?
Approximately r = .5.
83
What is the correlation between IQ and job performance?
Approximately r = .5 (Schmidt & Hunter, 2004).
84
What is the correlation between IQ and occupational success?
Approximately r = .43 (Strenze, 2007).
85
What is the correlation between IQ and income?
Approximately r = .2.
86
Besides IQ, what other factor predicts occupational success?
Socioeconomic status (SES).
87
What did the Scottish Mental Surveys (1932, 1947) reveal?
IQ at age 11 predicted risk of death over 65 years later (follow-up at age 76).
88
What health outcomes are linked to higher IQ?
Lower mortality from cancer, dementia, psychiatric illness, and cardiovascular disease.
89
What health behaviours are associated with higher IQ?
Less smoking, healthier diet, less alcohol misuse, more exercise (Batty et al., 2007).
90
What did Whitley et al. (2010) and Holden (2003) find about IQ and accidents?
Lower IQ predicts higher risk of accidents such as road crashes, poisoning, and fires.
91
How does IQ relate to disease risk?
Each 1 SD (≈15-point) IQ advantage reduces illness and premature death risk by 20–25%.
92
Key takeaway: Why are reliability and validity essential in IQ tests?
Because they ensure that test results are consistent and meaningful.
93
Key takeaway: What is the difference between Ratio IQ and Deviation IQ?
Ratio IQ compares mental and chronological age; Deviation IQ compares performance to age norms.
94
Key takeaway: Why does IQ matter?
It predicts academic and occupational success, health outcomes, and overall longevity.
95
What is the key debate in intelligence research?
Whether intelligence is a single unified ability or a collection of distinct abilities.
96
Why is the debate over intelligence structure important?
It affects how intelligence is defined, measured, and applied in education and testing.
97
What method does the psychometric approach use to study intelligence?
Factor analysis – a statistical method to find underlying factors in test performances.
98
Who proposed the concept of general intelligence (g)?
Charles Spearman (1904).
99
What is the 'positive manifold'?
The observation that scores across different cognitive tasks tend to be positively correlated.
100
What does Spearman’s g represent?
A single general factor influencing performance across all cognitive tasks.
101
What abilities does general intelligence (g) involve?
Reasoning, problem-solving, and learning ability.
102
What is the test–retest reliability of IQ?
Approximately r = 0.7, indicating good consistency.
103
Who proposed the Primary Mental Abilities theory?
Louis Thurstone (1938).
104
What are Thurstone’s 7 Primary Mental Abilities?
Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical fluency, verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, memory, inductive reasoning.
105
What evidence supports Thurstone’s theory?
People can excel in one area but not others, and brain damage can selectively impair abilities.
106
What limitation does Thurstone’s theory have?
It cannot explain the positive correlations (positive manifold) across tasks.
107
What do hierarchical models of intelligence propose?
Intelligence is layered: general (g) at the top, broad abilities in the middle, and specific skills at the bottom.
108
Who proposed the Gf–Gc theory?
Raymond Cattell.
109
What is crystallised intelligence (Gc)?
Acquired knowledge and skills based on culture and education, e.g., vocabulary and general information.
110
What is fluid intelligence (Gf)?
The ability to solve new problems, reason abstractly, and identify patterns; considered culture-free.
111
How does age affect fluid and crystallised intelligence?
Fluid intelligence declines with age, while crystallised intelligence remains stable or improves.
112
What do meta-analyses show about brain training apps?
No strong evidence that they prevent cognitive decline (Nguyen et al., 2022).
113
What lifestyle factors protect against cognitive decline?
Physical activity, good nutrition, and learning music (Blondell et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2021; Rogers & Metzler-Baddeley, 2024).
114
Who proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI)?
Howard Gardner (1987/2011).
115
How did Gardner redefine intelligence?
As the ability to solve problems or create valued products in a specific culture.
116
What are Gardner’s 8 intelligences?
Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic.
117
What evidence supports Gardner’s MI theory?
Neuroscience shows different brain regions for different abilities (Shearer & Karanian, 2017); savant syndrome demonstrates isolated exceptional abilities (Treffert, 2021).
118
What are the main criticisms of Gardner’s MI theory?
Empirical weakness, lack of standardised measurement, and correlations among intelligences with g (Visser et al., 2006).
119
What is the 'neuromyth' critique of MI?
Some researchers argue MI lacks neuroscientific validity and is considered a neuromyth (Waterhouse, 2023).
120
How does Gardner respond to criticisms of MI?
He argues that traditional tests don’t measure multiple intelligences appropriately.
121
Summary: What did Spearman propose?
A single general intelligence factor (g) explaining positive correlations between abilities.
122
Summary: What did Thurstone propose?
Seven independent primary mental abilities.
123
Summary: What do hierarchical theories propose?
That intelligence has multiple levels: general, broad, and specific abilities.
124
Summary: What did Gardner propose?
Eight distinct intelligences reflecting a broader view of human potential, though lacking strong empirical support.
125
What is heritability?
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.
126
Does heritability refer to individuals or groups?
Groups — it explains differences between people in a sample, not within one person.
127
If intelligence heritability = 50%, what does that mean?
Half of the observed differences in intelligence among people in that sample are due to genetic factors.
128
Who first studied hereditary intelligence?
Sir Francis Galton (1869, 1875).
129
What were Galton’s key contributions?
He studied eminent families, twin similarities, and argued for hereditary genius — though his evidence was anecdotal.
130
What is the key idea behind twin studies?
Comparing MZ and DZ twins to isolate the effects of genes and environment on intelligence.
131
How do MZ and DZ twins differ genetically?
MZ twins share 100% of genes, DZ twins share about 50%.
132
What is the main finding if MZ twins are more similar in IQ than DZ twins?
It suggests a strong genetic contribution to intelligence.
133
What do adoption studies measure?
The influence of shared environment versus genetic inheritance on intelligence.
134
What is the concordance rate?
The percentage of pairs (e.g., twins) who share a particular trait.
135
What did Polderman et al. (2015) find about intelligence heritability?
A meta-analysis of 14.5 million twin pairs found heritability ≈ 49%.
136
What is the equal environments assumption?
That MZ and DZ twins experience equally similar environments — which may not always be true.
137
What is selective placement in adoption studies?
Adoption agencies often place children in families similar to their biological background, confounding genetic vs environmental effects.
138
What is the non-shared environment?
Unique experiences siblings don’t share, such as different teachers or peer groups.
139
What are Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS)?
Studies that examine genetic similarity across DNA to estimate heritability directly.
140
What did Plomin & Deary (2015) find from early GWAS?
Estimated heritability around 20–30%.
141
What did Deary et al. (2022) find in newer GWAS?
About 54% heritability, aligning with twin studies.
142
Do GWAS pinpoint specific genes for intelligence?
Not yet — intelligence is influenced by many genes of small effect.
143
What environmental factor strongly affects intelligence?
Education — structured teaching and enrichment improve intelligence scores.
144
What is the effect of SES on intelligence?
Children adopted from low-SES to high-SES homes show higher IQs due to better resources and nutrition.
145
How does nutrition impact cognitive development?
Malnutrition lowers IQ; improved nutrition is linked to higher scores.
146
What did Qian et al. (2025) find about nutrition?
Improved nutrition in rural China correlated with higher IQs.
147
What is the relationship between breastfeeding and IQ?
Breastfeeding is linked to small but significant IQ gains.
148
What did Horta et al. (2015) conclude about breastfeeding?
Meta-analysis found about a 3.5-point IQ advantage in breastfed children.
149
What did Hou et al. (2021) find about breastfeeding duration?
Breastfeeding for more than 6 months is associated with higher IQ than shorter durations.
150
What was Kramer et al. (2008)’s finding?
A large RCT showed breastfeeding promotion improved cognitive outcomes.
151
What is the Flynn Effect?
The observed rise in average IQ scores over generations (Flynn, 1984).
152
How much did IQ increase due to the Flynn Effect (1932–1978)?
About 13.8 points, or roughly 3 points per decade.
153
What did Pietschnig & Voracek (2015) find about the Flynn Effect?
Meta-analysis of 271 samples found greatest gains in fluid intelligence (Gf).
154
What environmental factors likely explain the Flynn Effect?
Improved schooling, nutrition, healthcare, technology, and fewer toxins.
155
What was Flynn’s (2007) argument for rising IQs?
Modernisation led to more abstract reasoning — people think more conceptually than in the past.
156
Example of Flynn’s argument?
Earlier generations answered concretely ('dogs catch rabbits'); modern people answer abstractly ('both are mammals').
157
Can genetics explain the Flynn Effect?
No — the changes occurred too rapidly to be genetic.
158
What percentage of intelligence is generally heritable according to research?
About 50%, with the rest influenced by environment.
159
What environmental factors influence intelligence?
SES, education, nutrition, and breastfeeding.
160
What does the Flynn Effect demonstrate?
That environmental factors can significantly raise population-level intelligence scores.
161
What is the interaction between genes and environment in intelligence?
Genes provide potential, but environment determines expression.
162
Key takeaway: What do twin, adoption, and GWAS studies show?
Genetic influence on intelligence is substantial but not total (~50%).
163
Key takeaway: What does the Flynn Effect show?
Strong environmental impact on intelligence due to modernisation and education.
164
What is the distinction between latent and manifest variables in intelligence?
Latent variables are underlying, unobservable traits (e.g., intelligence), while manifest variables are observable test performances or behaviours.
165
What are implicit theories of intelligence?
Everyday beliefs not based on research; include entity (fixed ability) and incremental (malleable ability) theories.
166
What was Alfred Binet’s main goal in developing his intelligence test?
To identify students who needed additional educational support, not to label or rank intelligence.
167
What did Binet mean by 'mental age'?
The age level of the most difficult task a child can perform successfully.
168
What is the difference between Ratio IQ and Deviation IQ?
Ratio IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100, while Deviation IQ compares performance to age-group norms.
169
What does IQ predict well?
Academic performance, though it has limitations for real-world problem-solving.
170
What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?
A measurement-based approach that studies how mental abilities relate, using tools like factor analysis.
171
What does the 'positive manifold' refer to?
The observation that performance across cognitive tasks tends to be positively correlated.
172
What is the difference between fluid (Gf) and crystallised (Gc) intelligence?
Gf = problem-solving and reasoning in new situations; Gc = knowledge and skills gained from experience and education.
173
How do Gf and Gc change with age?
Fluid intelligence declines with age, while crystallised intelligence remains stable or improves.
174
What is the Flynn Effect?
The observed rise in average IQ scores across generations, linked to modernisation, education, and nutrition.
175
What critique did Sternberg (2022) make of traditional IQ?
IQ correlates with progress and success but also with harmful outcomes; adaptive intelligence is needed for positive impact.
176
What is adaptive intelligence?
The ability to apply intelligence for the common good, balancing personal, social, and environmental needs.
177
What did Ceci & Williams (2022) find about high IQ individuals?
They can still engage in biased or ideologically motivated reasoning and fall for misinformation.
178
What is the difference between 'cool' and 'hot' intelligence?
Cool intelligence is logical and analytical; hot intelligence involves emotions, relationships, and social context.
179
Who first introduced the concept of social intelligence?
Edward Thorndike (1920).
180
How did Wechsler (1958) define social intelligence?
As general intelligence applied to social situations.
181
What did Gardner (1987) contribute to the study of hot intelligence?
He proposed interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences as part of his Multiple Intelligences theory.
182
What is emotional intelligence (EI)?
The ability to recognise, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and others.
183
What are the two main models of EI?
Mixed models (personality-based) and ability models (cognitive ability-based).
184
What are the key components of Goleman’s mixed model of EI?
Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.
185
What are the five dimensions of Bar-On’s EQ-i model?
Intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptation, stress management, and general mood.
186
What are the four branches of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso ability model of EI?
Perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotions, managing emotions.
187
How is ability EI measured?
By the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).
188
How do the four branches of EI form a causal system?
The first three (perceiving, using, understanding) enable effective emotional management, leading to adaptive behaviour.
189
According to MacCann et al. (2020), how important is EI for academic success?
EI is the third most important predictor of academic performance after cognitive ability and conscientiousness.
190
What did Schutte et al. (2007) find about EI and health?
Higher EI is associated with better mental and physical health, especially for mixed EI.
191
What did Sánchez-Álvarez et al. (2016) find about EI and well-being?
Higher EI, particularly mixed EI, predicts greater subjective well-being.
192
What are the three components of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory?
Analytical (academic), creative (innovation), and practical (real-world problem-solving) intelligence.
193
What is practical intelligence?
‘Street smarts’ — the ability to adapt to and shape one’s environment effectively.
194
What is creative intelligence?
The ability to generate novel ideas and insights for new problems.
195
How does Sternberg’s concept of adaptive intelligence differ from IQ?
Adaptive intelligence focuses on wisdom and ethical problem-solving for societal and global benefit, not just academic success.
196
How does Sternberg define wisdom?
Using knowledge and skills for the common good, balancing interests, and promoting ethical outcomes.
197
Why is wisdom difficult to measure?
Because it involves moral judgement, ethics, and context-specific problem-solving, which are hard to standardise.
198
Key takeaway: What does IQ fail to capture?
Social, emotional, and practical aspects of intelligence important for real-world functioning.
199
Key takeaway: Why is EI important?
It supports academic success, well-being, and effective relationships.
200
Key takeaway: What is the significance of Sternberg’s model?
It expands intelligence beyond test performance to include creativity, practicality, and ethical wisdom.
psych 1002
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