1
Q
Explain the main idea behind the term research methodology
A
- A way of investigating things in a systematic manner
- Research is done to prove/disprove statements about behaviour by providing evidence
2
Q
List 4 types of research method
A
- Experiment
- Self-report
- Observation
- Case study
3
Q
Define
experiment
A
The testing of the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.
4
Q
Define
hypothesis
A
A statement or prediction that is able to be tested.
i.e. a testable statement
5
Q
Define
the three different types of hypotheses
A
- Research hypothesis: a general statement that does not have enough detail on which to base an investigation
- Alternate hypothesis: a statement that gives enough detail for investigation; the component parts are operative (stated in terms which make it clear how results are to be measured)
- Null hypothesis: a statement which assumes there will be no effect in the population from which the samples are drawn
6
Q
Define
operationalisation
A
Using a characteristic to measure behaviour (as in an alternate hypothesis)
(may lead to reductionism)
7
Q
Define
laboratory experiment
and give examples
A
An experiment taking place inside a closed environment where conditions are controlled and the IVs are manipulated in order to discover cause and effect.
e.g. Milgram, Bandura, Langlois
8
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of laboratory experiments
A
Advantages:
- Allow for control over extraneous variables (causal relationships can be established)
- Replication is highly possible as standardised procedures are used
- Some degree of consent is usually given by participants
Disadvantages:
- Results may be biased by sampling, demand characteristics or experimenter bias
- Controlling variables is reductionistic
- Low ecological validity as artificial conditions can produce unnatural behaviour
- For the IV to be isolated, participants may be deceived about the true nature of the study (cf. Milgram)
9
Q
Define
field experiment
and give examples
A
A form of research that takes place outside a laboratory, where conditions are controlled (but not to the same extent as in a laboratory) and IVs manipulated in order to discover cause and effect.
e.g. Piliavin
10
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments
A
Advantages:
- Greater ecological validity as natural surroundings
- Less likelihood of demand characteristics
Disadvantages:
- Difficulties in controlling variables lead to possible influence from extraneous variables
- Might be difficult to replicate
- May have problems accessing study location e.g. workplace
- Ethical problems of consent, deception, invasion of privacy, etc
11
Q
Define
natural experiment
and give examples
A
An experiment where the conditions of the IV are naturally occuring / happen by themselves and are not manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.
e.g. Baron-Cohen, Billington
12
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of natural experiments
A
Advantages:
- Greater ecological validity as natural surroundings
- Less likelihood of demand characteristics
Disadvantages:
- Difficult to infer cause and effect due to lack of control over extraneous variables and no IV manipulation
- Difficult to replicate
- May be subject to bias if subjects know they are being studied
13
Q
Define
repeated measures design
and give examples of its use
A
Each participant takes part in all conditions.
e.g. Langlois, Demattè
14
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures designs
A
Advantages:
- Best control of participant variables (same intelligence, motivation, etc)
- Less people needed
Disadvantages:
- Less data acquired
- Impossible in some studies (e.g. can’t be both genders)
- May be necessary to duplicate apparatus
- Order effects such as fatigue effect and practice effect (does better the second time as subject knows what to expect)
15
Q
Define
independent measures design
and give examples of its use
A
Each participant in only one condition of the IV.
e.g. Nelson, Schachter and Singer
16
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of independent measures designs
A
Advantages:
- No order effects
- No need to duplicate apparatus
- Might stop subject from guessing purpose of study and therefore reduce demand characteristics
- More data acquired
Disadvantages:
- More participants needed
- Low control of participant variables (may be reduced by random allocation)
17
Q
Define
matched pairs design
and give examples of its use
A
Involves the use of independent groups, but with participants matched between the two groups (i.e. person in Group A matched with person in Group B) on as many variables as possible that might extraneously affect the DV.
If the participants are well matched, the design is similar to a repeated measures design.
e.g. Bandura
18
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of matched pair designs
A
Advantages:
- Control of participant variables
- No order effects
Disadvantages:
- Time-consuming and difficult to match subjects
- May not control all participant variables
19
Q
Define
confounding variable
and list three types of confounding variables
A
A variable that may affect the DV; thus, the experiment does not know whether the DV is due to the IV or some other extraneous variable.
- situational variables
- experimenter variables
- participant variables
20
Q
Explain the term situational variable
A
A confounding variable concerning the environment or situation in which the experiment is carried out.
For example, if different groups are tested in different environments they may get different results.
21
Q
Explain the term experimenter variable
A
A confounding variable where the presence of the experimenter(s) affects the results
- demand characteristics (control by using a single blind design, where the participant is unaware of the expected behaviour/that they are being watched)
- experimenter bias (control by using a double blind design, where the experimenter does not know which group the subject is in)
22
Q
Explain the term participant variable
A
Individual differencess between participants that may affect the DV
solution:
- use a large sample
- matched pair design
23
Q
List the advantages and disadvantages of controlling variables
A
Advantages
- Causal relationships can be established
- More predictable
- More replicable
Disadvantages
- Reductionist - unlikely that one behaviour exists in isolation from others
- Lower ecological validity
- Demand characteristics more likely
24
Q
Define
self-report
and list 2 methods/types of self-report
A
Asking the participants about something so they can report on it themselves
- Questionnaires/Surveys
- Interviews
25
Describe how a questionnaire works
Can have either/both of two types of question:
* open-ended: subject writes answer in own words; gives qualitative data
* closed: subject chooses from a range of pre-determined answers; e.g. yes/no, Likert scale
Can be sent by post or filled out online (can remain anonymous)
e.g. Billington, Baron-Cohen, Veale
26
Describe how interviews work
Can be
* **structured**: same questions without variation
* **unstructured**
* **semi-structured**
Also can be carried out **face-to-face** or **telephone**; however, neither are anonymous
e.g. Loftus, Vrij & Mann
27
List the advantages and disadvantages of using a self-report method
Advantages:
* can express range of feelings and reasons for behaviour
* can be rich/detailed with qualitative data
* closed questions can be statistically analysed
* questionnaires & structured interviews are easy to replicate
Diadvantages:
* subjects may give socially desirable answers/respond to demand characteristics
* must be careful of leading questions
28
Define
observation
and describe three types of observation
Where data is collected through observing or watching participants with the aim of recording the behaviour witnessed.
1. **Controlled:** controlled setting, researcher can intervene
2. **Natural:** natural setting, researcher cannot intervene, subject unaware of observation
3. **Participant:** researcher is a member of the observed community
29
Describe how observational data may be recorded
* **Unstructured:** observer records all behaviour with no predetermined ideas of categories
* **Structured:** observer has predetermined schedule/coding scheme/tally chart/response categories
* event sampling
* time sampling
30
List the advantages and disadvantages of observation
Advantages:
* People are more likely to display natural, realistic behaviour when they are unaware they are under observation
* They allow us to observe natural situations without an artificial setting
* Structured observation data can be analysed
Weaknesses:
* The observer, if detected, may distort the observations by influencing the sample.
* Observation without consent is unethical
* A single observer is not reliable (may be biased)
* No cause-and-effect; participants cannot explain their behaviour
* Difficult to replicate.
31
Define
case study
An investigation about a single factor, for example: a person, an illness, etc.
## Footnote
Case studies are often *longitudinal*
32
List the advantages and disadvantages of case studies
Advantages:
* Very detailed and produce a lot of information
* Can apply a range of methods, e.g. interviews, observations, questionnaires
* The researcher may become close to a person who is at the centre of the case study, thus allowing them access to more privileged and confidential information.
* High ecological validity
Disadvantages:
* They are very time-consuming and may be costly.
* Researcher bias as close relationship is formed
* Rarely generalisable
* Extremely difficult to replicate
* Unique subject might cause researchers to draw false conclusions
* Not enough quantitative data for statistical testing
33
Explain the term **ecological validity**
This refers to how far a study reflects reality and how true it is to real life.
* If a study is representative of the real world, it holds ecological validity, in other words: it is ecologically valid.
* If a study has high ecological validity, it can be generalised to a wider population and location.
* However, there may be a lack of control over confounding variables when trying to improve ecological validity
34
Ethics
In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by. These ethics are:
Protection of participants Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information.
Consent Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving consent Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are Children under 18 years of age Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of the study
Right to withdraw Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty.
Confidentiality Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data
Deception Deception should be avoided But slight deception is considered acceptable if: Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study The research has potential significant contribution It is unavoidable The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being informed of the deception If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity
Debriefing Any deception must be revealed and justified
Participants should leave the study without undue stress Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible
35
Define
quantitative data
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Data expressed in numbers that can be statistically analysed
Advantages:
* statistics allow direct comparisons of subjects in different conditions
* more objective and scientific
* can be done relatively quickly in *snapshoot studies*
Disadvantages:
* reductionist
* can be misinterpreted
* more easily falsified by researchers to match the aim of the study
36
Define
qualitative data
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Descriptive data expressed in words
Advantages:
* insightful, not reductionist
* can explain how/why findings occurred
Disadvantages:
* subjective (researcher may be too involved)
* participants may give socially acceptable answers
* cannot make statistical comparisons
37
Explain the term **reliability**
The reliability of a study depends on the consistency of its results. e.g. replicating a study four times and getting the same or very similar results
* *test-retest method* judges reliability of psychometric test/mesurement; administer same test again after a time period
* *split-half method* judges reliability by giving two halves of a test to teh same person and comparing scores
* *inter-rater reliability* improves reliability of observation by judging the extent that two or more observers agree on the observations
38
Explain the term **validity**
A study is valid if it actually measures what it is claiming to measure.
* **Construct validity:** how the measure matches theoretical ideas
* **Criterion validity:** compares the measure with another measure
* *concurrent* - same time
* *predictive* - other measure assessed much later
* **Face validity:** appears superficially valid
39
Define
snapshot study
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
A study conducted at one point in time (\<1 hour)
Advantages:
* quick
* likely quantitative
* can be used to obtain preliminary evidence
Disadvantages:
* cannot see development / long-term effectiveness
* cohort effects may reduce validity
40
Define
longitudinal study
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
A study taking place over a long period of time with the same group of participants / one person
Advantages:
* can study development
* same participant so individual differences are controlled
* lots of rich data (quanti- and qualitative)
Disadvantages;
* participant attrition - may drop out
* cannot change variables
* bias as researcher becomes attached
* cannot generalise - especially cross-generation
* difficult to replicate
41
Define
cross-sectional study
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
A study looking at people who differ on one key characteristic (such as age) at one specific point in time
Advantages:
* immediate results - convenient, quick, cheap
Disadvantages:
* cohort effects
* large sample needed
42
Define
opportunity sampling
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Participants are chosen upon availability
Advantages:
* quick, economical
Disadvantages:
* biased as researcher selects sample
* unrepresentative of target population
43
Define
self-selected sampling
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Participant's actions cause them to be selected, e.g. responding to ads, arriving at a sampling point
Advantages:
* useful when specific criteria for sample is required
* convenient
* ethical when participants respond
Disadvantages:
* ads might be expensive
* volunteering personality
* educated people read newspapers
* may only volunteer for payment - demand characteristics
44
Define
random sampling
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Each participant is randomly selected from the target population with equal chance
Advantages:
* unbiased
* representative
Disadvantages:
* unpractical for large sample
* people chosen might not want to take part and will need replacing - may produce biased sample
45
Define
stratified sampling
and list the advantages and disadvantages of its use
Sample is organised so that particular groups are selected in proportion to their size in the target population. Member of each subgroup is selected randomly.
Advantages:
* simple
* representation - can be generalised
Disadvantages:
* need access to target population
* problems with random sampling
