What is a questionnaire?
Set list of questions, asked in some way time
Usually self completion, but can be done over the phone or face to face
Usually consist of mainly closed data which creates quantitative data
What are the different question types?
Open and closed questions
Closed questions- fixed number of responses
Pre-coded to provide quantitative data
Attitudes and intentions
Open questions-
Allows respondent to provide own unique responses
Produces more qualitative data
Explains meanings and motivations
Strengths and usefulness of questionnaires
Relatively cheap and quick method to distribute (P)
Less intrusive (E)
Obtain quantitative data (P/T)
Broad range of respondents as they can be geographically widespread (T)
Ethical issues of questionnaires
-Potentially sensitive topics could cause distress
-Recording of information must be kept in accordance with GDPR guidelines
-Respondents may only give information if anonymity is maintained
-May disclose responses that are immoral or require reporting to other bodies
Practical issues with questionnaires
-Response rates may be too low to give a representative sample
-Leading questions or ambiguous questions
-Obtains quantitative data that lacks detail
-Open questions can be time consuming to analyse
Theoretical issues
-Closed questions lack validity due to fixed responses
-Open questions may lack reliability as responses will be less likely to be repeated
-Are we really measuring true opinions and behaviours?
Example of questionnaires
Census- distributed every ten years to measure household information
Sullivan- researching cultural capital of parents
Do positivists or interpretivists prefer questionnaires?
Positivists prefer questionnaires because the data produced is quantifiable, it uncovers patterns of behaviour which can be analysed for patterns and trends
What is an experiment?
A research situation where the researcher has a high degree of control
Variables are identified and some controlled
By manipulating the variables and observing what happens, the research can discover cause and effect relationships
Different types of experiments
Laboratory experiments- Hypothesis is tested under controlled “created” environment, focusing on independent and dependant variables
Field experiments- Hypothesis is tested in the “real world” and those involved are usually unaware
What are the strengths of lab experiments?
-Highly reliable: the original experiment can specify precisely what steps were followed in the original experiments (T)
-Can easily identify cause and effect relationships (P/T)
What are the weaknesses of lab experiments?
-Artificiality: unlikely results can be transferred to the real world (T)
-Hawthorne effect: Knowledge that you’re in an experiment can change one behaviour (T)
-Consent: Usually deception meaning that obtaining informed consent can be difficult or impulsive (E)
-Often expensive and time consuming (P)
What are the strengths of field experiments?
-Less artificial than lab experiments because they have more ecological validity (T)
-People don’t know they’re in an experiment, so no Hawthorne effect (T)
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
-Less control over variables, so they are not scientific (T)
-They have limited application, as very few situations can be adapted to become a field experiment (T)
-Do not gain consent of those involved, as this would change behaviour (E)
Examples of experiments
Lab experiments- Milgram’s experiments into obedience
Field experiment- Rosenthal and Jacobsen pygamalion in the classroom
Do positivists or interpretavists prefer experiments?
Positivists favour lab experiments as they use scientific methods
Intepretavists prefer field experiments as they show genuine behaviour that wouldn’t have been shown in a lab setting
What is an interview?
An interview is a conservation between a researcher and a respondent about a certain topic of interest
What are the different types of interviews?
Structured interviews- an interview that follows a list of preset questions. Interviewees choose from a limit list of possible answers. Usually done face to face or over the phone. Usually consists of close ended questions. Creates quantitative data so favoured by positivists.
Unstructured interviews- an interview that asks mainly open ended questions. No fixed set. Produce qualitative, meaningful data. Free flowing, similar to a natural conversation. Relationship built. Favoured by intepretavists
What are the strengths of structured interviews?
Reliable- use a fixed set of questions and can be easily repeated (T)
Relatively quick to conduct, interviewer can get large sample (T/P)
Cheapest form of interview (P)
What are the weaknesses of structured interviews?
Lack validity as questions and responses are already pre-determine so may not fit what interviewee actually thinks (T)
Employing interviewers incurs a cost (P)
Not useful for many situations, like sensitive subjects and topics (E)
What are the strengths of an unstructured interview?
-Informal, participants are more likely to open up (T)
-Because questions aren’t fixed, there’s less chance of ideas being imposed (T/E/P)
-Interviewers can add questions to explore specific answers further (T)
What are the weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
-Not reliable at all (T)
-Too much data (P)
-Not always relevant (P/T)
-Employing interviews are expensive (P)
-Can a close relationship and a conversational tone make answers less valid? (T)
What are examples of structured and unstructured interviews?
Becker- unstructured interviews with teachers to formulate ideas of ‘Ideal Pupil’
Carlen- unstructured interview when assessing gender and criminality
Willis- unstructured and group interviews as part of studying anti-school subcultures in ‘Learning to Labour’
Participant observation
Strengths
Allows researchers to study groups that may be difficult to access (P)
Validity, provides deep qualitative insights as researches explore first hand (T)
Representative as can offer detailed understanding of specific group (T)
