1
Q
What is opportunity cost? (2)
A
- The cost of the next best alternative foregone when making a decision
- Not only monetary, but considers risk, time and effort necessary for one against the other
2
Q
What is profit? (6)
A
- Profit = total revenue - total cost
- Accounting profit is the excess revenue income over and above explicit costs (production costs - wages, rent, raw materials)
- Economic loss/sub normal profit = profit does not cover cost
- Normal profit = profit that just covers its costs
- Economic/supernormal profit = in excess of all costs and shows that the producer is making the correct decisions
- Total cost = explicit costs + opportunity costs
3
Q
What is demand? (4)
A
- The quantity of a good that a consumer is willing and able to buy at a given price over a given period of time
- Demand curve is downward sloping
- Changes in price creates movement along the demand curve - expansion/contraction. If prices increase, QD decreases
- Changes in factors affecting demand creates a shift e.g. PASIFIC (population growth, advertising, substitute goods, indirect taxes, fashion and trends, interest rates, complementary goods). Increases lead to shift outwards, decreased cause inwards shift
4
Q
What is supply? (4)
A
- The quantity of a good that a seller is willing and able to produce at a given price at a given time
- The supply curve is upward sloping - the higher the price, the more producers are willing to produce
- A change in price creates a movement a long the supply curve - contract/expansion
- PINTSWC - productivity, interest rates, number of firms in the market, technology, subsidies, weather, cost of production
5
Q
What is equilibrium? (2)
A
- Where buyers and sellers meet - the market clearing price
- Demand = supply
6
Q
What is price elasticity of demand? (6)
A
- The quantity of a good or service a consumer is willing and able to buy with a change in price
- PED = % change in QD/% change in price
- If change in price is > 1, the good is demand elastic (change in price has a larger impact on demand)
- If change in price is <1, the good is inelastic (change in price has a lesser impact on demand)
- If change is 1, the good is unit elastic - change in price = change in QD
- Perfectly inelastic goods have a vertical demand curve and a PED = zero e.g. prescription drugs
7
Q
What is the relationship between total revenue and PED? (6)
A
- Inelastic = change in QD is less than change in price - total revenue will fall
- Elastic = change in QD is greater than change in price - total revenue will increase
- Unit elastic = total revenue is at its maximum
- Top of downward sloping demand curve = elastic
- Bottom = inelastic
- Midpoint = unit elastic
8
Q
What is income elasticity? (4)
A
- Measures sensitive to consumer demand with a change in income
- YED = % change in quantity demand/% change in income
- If demand falls with income falling = inferior goods e.g. travel
- If demand increases as prices increase = given good e.g. Lurpak or staple foods
9
Q
What is XED? (4)
A
- The change in QD of good A with a change in price of good B
- XED = % change in QD good A/% change in price of good B
- Positive cross elasticity = substitute goods e.g if price of petrol goes up, demand for tube will increase
- Negative cross elasticity = complimentary goods e.g if price of petrol increases, demand for cars decreases
10
Q
What is elasticity of supply? (5)
A
- PES = % change in quantity supplied/% change in price
- Result is positive - as price increases, the manufacturers willingness to supply will also increase
- If PES > 1 this is elastic
- If PES < 1 this is inelastic
- A horizontal line = perfectly elastic, a vertical line = perfectly inelastic
11
Q
What impacts PES? (4)
A
- Levels of unemployment - lack of supply/labour
- Types of goods - durability of goods (storable) tend to have higher elasticity as producers can build up inventory, perishable goods have lower elasticity. Manufactured goods have more elasticity than agricultural goods which are impacted by weather conditions
- Freely mobile factors of production - less reliant on fixed costs and more reliant on variable costs, the more elastic the product
- In the long run, PES will be more elastic than in the short run
12
Q
What are the factors of production? (4)
A
- Land - land, property, natural resource
- Labour - human input
- Capital - machinery, a good used to make another good
- Entrepreneurship - ideas and innovation
13
Q
What is the short run? (3)
A
- At least one factor of production is fixed e.g. limited skilled labour/limited capacity at a property
- Marginal returns - one extra unit of output for one extra unit of labour employed, assuming that all other factors of production are held constant
- Short run costs: total cost, average cost and marginal cost
14
Q
What is the law of diminishing returns? (3)
A
- An increase in one extra unit of labour will eventually start to reduce marginal product
- Once diminishing returns occur, there is inefficiencies
- Variable input can reduce variable output
15
Q
What is total cost? (3)
A
- Total cost = total fixed cost + total variable cost
- Total fixed costs includes costs that do not variable with output e.g. rates and rents
- Total variable costs are costs that vary with output e.g. labour and raw materials
16
Q
What is average cost? (5)
A
- AFC = TFC/Q
- AVC = TVC/Q
- ATC = (TFC+TVC)/Q
- Firms total cost will decrease as the firm increases output - the firm becomes more efficient
- The limiting factor of production will push up ATC once a certain leaves of output is exceeded
17
Q
What is marginal cost? (5)
A
- The cost of producing an additional unit of production
- There is a close relationship between average total cost and marginal cost
- As long as marginal cost is below average cost, the average cost will reduce as production increases
- When average costs are not rising or falling, it must equal marginal costs
- MC = ATC at the ATC’s lowest point
18
Q
What happens in the long run with factors of production? (6)
A
- Freely mobile factors of production
- Firm can’t produce output more efficiently and the costs will fall
- A low SRATC is achieved through economies of scale (downwards shift)
- A series of short run average cost curves is the LRACC
- Economies of scale = increased reputation, productivity, purchasing power
- At some point, output will increase but average cost will no longer fall
19
Q
What is the minimum efficient scale? (5)
A
- The lowest point of the long run average total cost curve
- The point where internal economies of scale has been fully exploited
- MES is the period where output is increase and long run average costs do not change - constant returns to scale
MES will vary from industry - If MES is relatively small compared to the market size, there are low barriers to entry
- If MES is high, high barriers to entry - utilties companies who have high ratio of fixed costs to variable costs
20
Q
What is diseconomies of scale? (2)
A
- Increased output leadings to increase in average cost in the long run
- Causes: management problems, red tape, loss of control
21
Q
What are the features of a perfectly competitive market? (5)
A
- Perfect information
- Low barriers to entry
- Many buyers, many sellers
- Price takers
- Homogenous product
22
Q
How is profit generated in perfectly competitive markets? (7)
A
- Flat demand curve - perfectly elastic
- Level of output does not impact price - firm is a price taker
- Marginal revenue - extra revenue a firm receives from selling one additional unit of output. Extra revenue received for each unit does not change. MR = P
- Average revenue remains constant and also equals price. AR = P
- Profit maximisation = MR = MC
- Perfectly competitive markets achieve normal profits only
- Long run equilibrium = AR = AC and MR = MC as the firm is maximising profits because the demand curve is flat
23
Q
What are the features of a monopoly? (3)
A
- Many buyers, few sellers
- Price makers
- High barriers to entry
24
Q
How is profit maximisation achieved in a monopoly? (5)
A
- MR = MC
- MR = downward sloping demand curve
- D = AR = P
- Supernormal profits in the long run - not under threat by new entrants
- Price discrimination - time, place, income - monopolist can produce at the price point where demand meets consumption
25
What are the features of monopolistic competition? (5)
- Many producers and consumers
- No business has total control
- Non price differences amongst competitors products
- Few barriers to entry and exit
- Producers have a degree of control over price - will rarely reach EOS though and will only make some supernormal profit
26
What are the features of an oligopoly? (3)
- Industry is dominated by a few firms
- Firms are dependent on each other
- There are significant barriers to entry
27
What is the price behaviour of oligopolies? (4)
- Cartel - few producers colluded to fix a price and level of output at which they produce
- Kinked demand - all members of the oligopoly react to each others price behaviour e.g. supermarkets
- Price leadership - one of the oligopoly is more dominant than the others - dictate price and others likely to follow. Also called predatory pricing - setting prices artificially low to drive out smaller companies - this is illegal in most economies
- Game theory - speculative behaviour where members anticipate price behaviour of competitors
28
What are the 5 stages of a product life cycle? (5)
- Introduction phase: sales growth slow, high promotion costs, low profits/losses
- Growth phase: rapid sales increase, higher profits, attracts competition and leads to a need for innovation
- Maturity phase: well known product, advertising falls, greater economies of scale, more competition, still need for innovation
- Decline phase: loss of market share and profitability, product relaunch
- Obsolescence: profits disappear
29
What are the 4 P’s? (4)
- Product - should be what buyers expect and should do what they are intended to do
- Place - products should be readily available where buyers tend to shop
- Promotions - advertising and others comms should be relevant for the type of customer of that product
- Price - set at a level that represents good value for money to customers
30
What is the production possibility frontier? (3)
- Shows what we are able to produce if all resources are being used
- If the production is on the curve, there is an efficient use of resources
- Movement along the PPF means there is an opportunity cost
31
What is demand? (4)
- The quantity of a good or service that a consumer is willing and able to purchase at a given price level
- Downward sloping curve
- Movement along the curve - extension/contraction in price
- PASIFIC - shift in demand curve
32
What is supply? (3)
- The quantity of a good or service a producer is willing and able to supply at a given price level
- PINTSWC create a shift is supply curve
- Upwards sloping supply curve
33
What is the equilibrium? (4)
- Market clearing price
- Where demand and supply meet
- S > D - excess supply
- D > S - excess demand
34
What is price elasticity of demand? (7)
- The percentage change in quantity demand of a good compared to the percentage change in price
- PED +1 - elastic
- PED -1 - inelastic
- Luxury goods - elastic
- Necessities - inelastic
- Demerit goods - inelastic
- Giffen goods - positive relationship between P&Q - higher price, higher demand. Lower price, lower demand
35
What is unitary elastic? (2)
- PED = 1
- Where there is maximum revenue at Q
36
What is cross elasticity of demand? (3)
- Measures the responsiveness in the QD of good X/% change in price of Y
- Positive for substitutes e.g. burgers and pizza
- Negative for complements e.g. cars and petrol
37
What is YED? (6)
- % change in QD/% change in income
- Measures the responsiveness to QD of a good with a % change in income
- Normal goods - elastic
- Luxuries - highly elastic
- Necessities - positively elastic
- Inferior goods - inelastic
38
What is short run costs? (2)
- At least one fixed factor of production
- Divided into fixed and variable costs
39
What is long run costs? (2)
- Freely mobile factors of production
- Total Variable Costs (TVC)
40
What is a fixed cost? (5)
- Does not vary with level of output
- Cost of machinery
- Rent/lease
- Need to be paid
- Total Fixed Costs (TFC)
41
What is variable costs? (1)
- Varies with the level of output
42
How do you calculate average costs? (2)
- Total fixed costs/quantity
- Total variable costs/quantity
43
What is marginal cost? (4)
- The additional cost of producing one extra unit
- Increases total cost
- Law of diminishing returns - output increases before starting to decreasing
- Peak is called maximum efficiency
44
What is ATC in the short run? (8)
- Spread total fixed costs over larger amounts
- Eventually there are diminishing returns
- ATC = AFC + AVC
- MC always cuts ATC and AVC at their minimum points
- Any production beyond the minimum point, there are diminishing returns
- If MC > ATC, price must rise
- If MC < ATC, price must fall
- MC = ATC
45
What is economies of scale? (6)
- As the long run output increases, average cost of production falls per unit
- Long run average cost curve
- Freely mobile factors of production
- Efficiency - specialisation is staff/skills
- Purchasing power - able to reduce costs
- Reputation - brand loyalty
46
What factors impact economies of scale? (6)
- Managerial - specialist and knowledgable leadership
- Technical - skilled workers
- Purchasing - bulk buying/discounts from suppliers
- Financial - can borrow at lower costs
- Marketing - advertising
- Risk bearing - can spread risks by diversifying products/markets
47
What are diseconomies of scale? (4)
- Average cost per unit increases as output increases
- Bureaucracy
- Lack of motivation
- Barrier to entry/innovation
48
What are the characteristics of perfect competition? (6)
- No barriers to entry/exit
- Price takers
- Many buyers, many sellers
- Perfect knowledge
- Profit maximisation
- Homogenous product e.g. curry
49
What are the long run equilibrium positions for perfect competition? (3)
- P = MR = AR = D = ATC
- Price remains constant when quantity sold changes
- Profit maximisation = MC = MR
50
What is supernormal profit in a perfect market?
- Achievable but not sustainable
51
What is a monopoly? (6)
- Price makers
- Many buyers, one seller
- Imperfect knowledge
- High barriers to entry/exit
- Many products
- Profit maximisation but also seek to achieve supernormal profits - profit above ATC. Achievable and sustainable
52
When are the best times to buy stocks in the economic cycle? (4)
- Recession - transport and energy
- Bust - consumers, durables and cyclicals, industrials
- Recovery - capital goods and financials
- Boom - basic industries
53
What are Porter's 5 forces? (5)
Competitors analysis
- Bargaining power of suppliers
- Bargaining power of customers
- Threat of new entrants
- Threat of substitutes
- Rivalry between competitors
54
What is the product life cycle? (5)
- Introduction
- Growth
- Maturity
- Decline
- Obsolescence
55
What is SWOT analysis?
- Strengths - what is the firm good at?
- Weaknesses - What is the firm weakest at?
- Opportunities - New markets/competitor weaknesses which can be exploited?
- Threats - macro conditions/comeptition
56
What are the 4 P's in marketing?
- Price
- Place
- Product
- Promotion
57
What is 'production function'? (2)
- The relationship between the 4 factors of production is called ‘production function’
- Considered both in the long and short run
Investment Practice
flashcards
Decks in class (16)
# Cards
-
Statistics55
-
Financial Maths23
-
Information And Indicies45
-
Equities: Types, Features and Issuing Equities75
-
Debt: Types and Features84
-
Debt Valuation66
-
Money Markets12
-
Foreign Exchange22
-
Derivatives And Other Instruments79
-
Property Investments39
-
Investment Products43
-
Portfolio Theory152
-
Company Accounts95
-
Ratio Analysis56
-
Microeconomics57
-
Macroeconomics49
