Mid-term #3 prep

Question 1

What was the non-alignment movement? Who started it?

Answer 1

The non-alignment movement was nations not aligning with either of the superpowers during the cold war. Jawaral Nehru was the first to popularise it.

Question 2

How did Nehru influence what people thought about newly decolonised nations?

Answer 2

He suggested the idea of the third world. He said that there was a capitalist first world (America and its nations) who had a very high standard of living as they had been the first colonizers. He then suggested that there was a communist second world (The USSR and its nations) And then he said that there was a third world of developing nations. This third world had been dominated and was in the process of decolonization. In order for these nations to be successful in this, Nehru felt that these nations must pursue and independent course and avoid being influenced by the superpowers. He felt that a specific policy of non-alignment was necessary for this.

Question 3

What are two factors that influenced the process of decolonisation in Africa?

Answer 3

• The shifting balance of power after World War 2 -The European powers were broke and didn’t have the strength to maintain their colonies after the war. There was a shifting balance of power between the colonizers and the African people
  -The Cold War and Ideological Legitimacy - The rhetoric of the Cold war made it hard to justify for the superpowers to maintain their hold.

Question 4

Why is North Africa different from the rest of the continent?

Answer 4

They were the first to move toward independence and this was probably because of their differences.
- Their geographical location - they were physically closer to Europe so they had a long history of European contact.
Islam - They also have a connection to the Middle East
- Civilization - Their societies were quite literacized.They had relatively high rates of literacy before colonization, complex administrative systems before colonization. (Colonizers generally came into places and set themselves at the top of existing legal/political structures - Colonial regimes were grafted onto the current systems) At this point, only small numbers of Europeans had arrived. There weren’t many Europeans!

Question 5

What is one of the main reasons for the smooth transition to independence in North Africa?

Answer 5

There were smaller numbers of European settlers and they hadn’t really taken utter control of the societies.

Question 6

Explain Egypt’s road to independence.

Answer 6

Egypt was actually self-governing before WWII. (It became a British protectorate after WWI) Britain only controlled military and diplomatic foreign affairs. In 1952, there was a military coup and Nasser took control. (The British kind of allowed this to happen for several different reasons) His government was formally recognised in 1954.

Question 7

What other countries in North Africa achieved independence relatively smoothly?

Answer 7

Sudan, Libya, Ethiopia, Morocco, and Tunisia.

Question 8

Why was it hard for Algeria to gain independence? (Even though they are in North Africa)

Answer 8

Due to the level of French occupation. They were first colonized by the French in 1830, so they had been there a long time.

Question 9

What were the Colons’ (French people in Algeria) role in the country?

Answer 9

They made up about 10% of the population but owned about 40% of the agricultural land so they were the wealthiest part of the population and had a lot of influence on the running of the country.

Question 10

How did the Colons resist the 1954 Algerian independence movement?

Answer 10

A lot of the Algerian population was Muslim and it was actually a very diverse country. They protested for independence from the French and ended up using military force. The French struck back with a terror campaign and were fiercely backed up by the French government. (Embarrassment about Vietnam)

Question 11

How did the Colons’ response to the Algerian Independence Movement impact it?

Answer 11

The French paratroopers gained a reputation for ferocity and atrocity at this time. But as the stories of the French abuse grew, so did the numbers of the people involved in the movement. They became more determined.

Question 12

What was SEATO?

Answer 12

(Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) - in 1953, the US created this organization to try to organize the allies of the US into a block. They couldn’t get all of the nations in Asia involved but they tried.

Question 13

What was CENTO?

Answer 13

(Central Treaty Organization) - The US was involved in the creation of this organization but weren’t a member themselves. It included many of the countries of the Middle East. The US didn’t join it themselves because Israel was a member and many of them were enemies of many of the other states the US were allied with.
The Soviets did reach out and try to extend their influence with countries that the US wasn’t aligned with.

Question 14

Explain the point of the Bandung Conference. (Officially the Asian African Conference)

Answer 14

This conference was organized by Nehru and Sukarno as a response to the alignments/treaties that the US were making. It brought together 29 nations who had been colonized in the past and were in the process of decolonization. They celebrated their independence and were able to share ideas with one another about the path forward. Nehru wanted to move the Third World together as block toward non-alignment.

Question 15

What was the significance of the Ten Principles of Peaceful Coexistence?

Answer 15

This document was created in 1955 and was a result of the Bandung Conference. It outlined basic principles about human rights. They called for a respect of human rights, racial equality, and sovereignty. (Khrushchev was ripping this idea off and trying to take credit for it to gain more support for the communists)

Question 16

What did the US and Britain think of the Bandung Conference?

Answer 16

They were very worried by it due to the Communist influences. (China was there) They didn’t want to lose control of these nations.

Question 17

What were the results of the Bandung Conference?

Answer 17

• The Non-aligned Movement - A follow up conference was held 6 years later in Yugoslavia and Nehru, Nasser, and Tito formalized the non-aligned movement.
• The conference also paved the way for “Colour Consciousness” - Richard Wright. (Led to people actually discussing white supremacy)

Question 18

What was the first country to push for independence in West Africa?

Answer 18

Ghana. (Formerly the Gold Coast) They were a British Colony and were granted independence in the 1952. Kwame Nkrumah was the first president.

Question 19

Why did Nkrumah struggle as the president of Ghana?

Answer 19

In 1960, Ghana introduced a new constitution for itself. In doing this, they were no longer a constitutional monarchy and became a republic. (They did still remain part of the British Commonwealth). Nkrumah was a bit power hungry and declared himself to be leader for life and made Ghana a one-party state. he overreached. (1964) In 1966, the military took over.

Question 20

How did French colonies in West Africa gain independence?

Answer 20

A lot smoother than Algeria. After WWII, the French did try to maintain an Imperial Federation (people who were part of this would have citizenship with any of the French colonies and France) but this idea wasn’t well-accepted as it seemed like a ploy for France to maintain their control over their colonies. After Guinea gained independence, the colonies around them were also pushing for independence, so France granted them all independence in 1960. This made for a smooth shift and France was able to maintain close relations with most of these countries.

Question 21

How did Guinea gain independence?

Answer 21

Guinea declared independence unilaterally in 1958. (They didn’t ask France). So, the French cut all ties and halted all economic assistance. Guinea suffered a great deal. France and Guinea didn’t resume diplomatic relations until 1975.

Question 22

Who colonized Congo?

Answer 22

Congo had long been occupied by Belgium, and had initially just been property of the Belgian king. Belgium authorities were very resistant to the idea of independence in Congo and were quite harsh with people involved in the independence movement. (They had a military force to keep people in line)

Question 23

Who were the leaders of the independence movement in Congo? Why are the significant?

Answer 23

Patrice Lumamba (from Leopoldville)- He was a member of the Tetela (an ethnic group)
Moise Tshombe (from Katanga) - He was Lunda and lived in southern Congo.
Congo is a huge country and these two movements were not united.

Question 24

When did Belgium grant independence to Congo?

Answer 24

Throughout the 1950s, there was rising tension in Congo and Belgium was having trouble maintaining control. They were also facing difficulty at home as the war had left them economically crippled and the rust belt was settling in. (Industries were becoming obsolete and deindustrialization was setting in). So, they abruptly changed their mind about granting independence in 1959 and officially gave it in 1960.

Question 25

Who were the leaders of Congo after Belgium pulled out? How did they do?

Answer 25

Patrice Lumumba was made PM but had no formal education aside from a year-long postmaster course. Up until independence, Belgium had made it hard for people in the Congo to get any sort of education: the whole country 16 university graduates and there was not a single lawyer, doctor, or engineer among them.

Question 26

Why did civil war erupt in Congo after gaining independence in 1960?

Answer 26

The drive for independence had been built around localized identities and Lumumba being made PM did not go over well with Tshombe. Tshombe declared resource-rich Katanga to be independent from Congo. (He was encouraged to do this by European financiers)

Question 27

Who else got involved in the civil war in Congo?

Answer 27

The Belgian government - they sent in Belgian military forces and paratroopers because they were worried about the fate of the Belgian colonists. (so they said) But they also had economic interests, like their mines. UN intervention - Lumumba (who was one of the earliest casualties of the war) asked for help from the UN who intervened and did manage to help bring peace to the country again in 1963. (Though there wasn't official peace until 1965).

Question 28

Who took over Congo in 1965?

Answer 28

General Mobutu (Sese Seko) - He took over the country via a military coup. He brought relative peace but under strict rule. (Civil rights were limited) He also renamed the country Zaire in 1971. In 1997, Zaire changed its name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Question 29

Who colonized South Africa?

Answer 29

The Dutch in the 1600s. Then, the British conquered during the Napoleonic wars in the 1800s. (The Dutch settlers were living under British rule)

Question 30

What did Britain implement in South Africa in 1910?

Answer 30

Britain united several different areas within South Africa into the Union of South Africa. They were then granted self-governing status. But, Britain did not treat their colonies equally, and ones with white settlers had privileges. (Those were called dominions)

Question 31

How was South Africa segregated?

Answer 31

Only people of European descent were allowed to participate in politics. (It was mainly white males with property)

Question 32

What were the Pan-African conferences? Who organised them?

Answer 32

Henry Sylvester-Williams organised them. It was a meeting between Black leaders in South Africa to discuss their political rights. The African National Congress was formed in 1912 to fight for Black political rights.

Question 33

What is apartheid and what does it include?

Answer 33

It was a system of legal segregation that was put in place by the middle of the 1930s to separate Blacks and Whites in South Africa. It was created in response to the Black movement for political rights. It included things like passbooks, separate staircases, and even cities.

Question 34

How did the world respond to apartheid?

Answer 34

- The UN suspended South Africa's voting rights in 1955. They did this because South Africa refused to do away with apartheid. - During a meeting among the British Commonwealth in 1961, the Canadian PM, John Diefenbaker, was very critical of the policies in South Africa. The leader of South Africa then stomped out and left the Commonwealth.

Question 35

What was the African National Congress?

Answer 35

They developed non-violent protests, (influenced by Gandhi's ideas) and pushed for a racially integrated South Africa. After WWII, the government responded to these with increasing amounts of force.

Question 36

What happened in the Sharpeville Massacre of 1960?

Answer 36

Black South Africans were protesting against the pass law. As they were protesting, the police opened fire on the unarmed group. Almost 70 people were killed and 180 were wounded. This brought increasing condemnation from other countries.

Question 37

Why was independence in Eastern Africa quick and easy?

Answer 37

There weren't as many European settlers and those who were there weren't that invested. Countries include: Tanganyika (1961), Uganda (1962), Zanzibar (1963), Nyasaland (1964), and Northern Rhodesia (1964)

Question 38

How did settlers impact Kenya?

Answer 38

- They began coming after the start of WWI and just kept coming after that. It wasn't that there was so many, but more their recent arrival. - They populated the plain below Mount Kenya and by Nairobi and began creating plantations. They were growing coffee and tea and there was lots of money to be made. - The Indian Commercial Class - Lots of migrants came from India and owned a lot of important businesses in Kenya.

Question 39

What was the problem with the Legislative Council in council?

Answer 39

It was extremely disproportionate. There was not equal representation of the population. There were 18 members on the council. 11 of them were Europeans. This is a huge imbalance. The Europeans were elected by their White counterparts. There were 5 Indians who were also elected. There was one representative for the Arabic population and one member for the African population. (This member was appointed by the British - the Africans didn’t even get to vote). This is quite telling and reflects how the British wanted to involve the African population in the running of their country.

Question 40

What influenced the Kikuyu resistance in Kenya?

Answer 40

New settlers were pushing the Kikuyu out of their region and seizing their lands. They called for political reforms and this didn't happen.

Question 41

What was the Mau Mau uprising?

Answer 41

The Kikuyu taking a stand against the settlers and their oppressive government. (Colonialism divides people - the British allied with one Indigenous group to dispossess the other group - the Kenyan Home Guard worked for the British). They were angry and engaged in terrorist attacks and carried out guerilla warfare.

Question 42

How did the British government respond to the Mau Mau uprising?

Answer 42

Allen Lennox, the British Colonial secretary, called in troops from Britain. (They planned on using force). Captured rebels were held in concentration camps. The leader of the Kikuyu was jailed despite him saying that he wasn't part of the Mau Mau.

Question 43

What did the British government do after the Mau Mau uprising?

Answer 43

They realized that they would have to grant independence and power to the black majority. (1963)

Question 44

Who was Jomo Kenyatta? Why is he significant?

Answer 44

He was the leader of the Kikuyu. His political party was called the Kenya National Union and they formed the first government. They made Kenya a republic. (Did away with the queen but remained part of the Commonwealth). Kenyatta was a very peaceful leader and was not oppressive to the white minority in Kenya. He said that they were going to forgive the past mistakes and move forward.

Question 45

What was the role of the British settler population in Southern Rhodesia?

Answer 45

This population was larger than that in Kenya. They were very accustomed to running the show, being the major property owners, and exploiting the African majority. (0.25 million settlers and 6 million Africans). Though most parts of Africa were making changes, the settlers here were determined to maintain their rule. (They were maybe looking to South Africa) Boss Lilford was one of the leading political leaders along with Ian Smith of the Rhodesian Front Political Party. It was a white supremacist party and was determined to prevent the black majority from taking over.

Question 46

Explain the Southern Rhodesia Law and Maintenance Act from 1960.

Answer 46

This law instituted apartheid-style measures. It made it a criminal offence to make statements that were likely to excite disaffection for the government. It was a crime to make statements that were likely to lead to public disorder. The new law allowed the government to ban political organizations that were deemed to have committed those offences. It also banned clothing that was associated with these banned organizations. It also expanded the range of police powers - they could search political activists without a warrant. (Police are given a lot of power here). The police also had the power to ban political publications, just because they said so. They could prohibit public meetings. They could limit the travel of political leaders. People couldn’t travel and spread their ideas. The biggest part - It reversed the burden of proof in court proceedings. Instead of the court having to prove that you were guilty, the defendant had to prove that they were innocent. So, the default was that you were going to jail. (This was not normal)

Question 47

What were the direct responses from Britian and members of the political system to the Law and Maintenance act?

Answer 47

- The Chief of Justice quit after this! -British Pressure to Permit Increased African Participation in Government - (As a response to the Law and Order Maintenance Act). Southern Rhodesia would not get independence until majority rule occurred. They were nowhere meeting this rule. 96% of the country was African yet 50 of the 60 seats in their parliament were white. British authorities were quite frustrated.

Question 48

What did the PM of Southern Rhodesia do in 1965?

Answer 48

He unilaterally declared independence. They became independent but almost nobody in the world recognized them as independent. The only country that recognized them was South Africa.

Question 49

What happened after the 1965 declaration of independence in Southern Rhodesia?

Answer 49

The UN Boycott - They were economically cut off. They kept going though, despite the fact that they were an outcast. South Africa kept trading with them. (The biggest crop in Southern Rhodesia was tobacco) - African Nationalism and Guerilla Warfare - An African independence movement emerged - 6 million out of 6.5 million began to engage in this campaign of guerilla warfare. As they did this, they were backed by the Soviet Union.

Question 50

When and why did the racist government in Southern Rhodesia give up?

Answer 50

In 1979 they surrendered control back to the British empire. This was because they were losing support from around the world. (Even South Africa) Terrible photos of independence fighters and interrogations had begun to emerge. Britain eventually granted independence after ensuring ties with Soviets and Communists had been effectively severed.

Question 51

Who colonized Angola and Mozambique?

Answer 51

They were both Portuguese colonies and were some of the oldest colonies in South Africa. (Traced back to the 1500s.) These colonies grew slowly over time.

Question 52

Who was the leader of Portugal?

Answer 52

The dictator of Portugal. He had ruled there since the 1930s and did not want to grant independence to these colonies. Fighting and guerilla warfare broke out here in the early 1960s.

Question 53

Explain the progression of African resistance movements in Angola and Mozambique. (1961-1975)

Answer 53

The fighting went on for fifteen years. The rebels were often provided weapons from one side of the cold war members. (USSR, China, and even Cuba). Portugal didn't want to grant independence and had to send more and more soldiers. They also trained other groups of Africans to help.

Question 54

When did Portugal grant independence to Angola and Mozambique?

Answer 54

In 1975, the cost to Portugal became too great and they finally backed down.

Question 55

What was the result of independence in Angola and Mozambique?

Answer 55

Similar to Congo, these countries had not been prepared to run themselves. Civil war broke out in both places. In Mozambique, this fighting lasted until 1992 and in Angola, the fighting lasted until 2002.

Question 56

Why was there so much instability in post-colonial Africa that led to a perception of chaos?

Answer 56

Though Asia actually had more conflict at this time, Africa's reputation was worse. This was because there are more countries. Some of the causes for conflict in these countries include lack of education, famine, small countries, and artificial borders.