1
Q
- men and women are basically alike i their intellectual and social behavior.
- Differences between women and men are produced by socialization, not biology (e.g., bohan, 2002)
A
similarities approach: Beta Bias
2
Q
- emphasizes differences between women and men
- differences thought to arise from essential qualities within the individual that are rooted in biology- essentialism
- may emphasize and celebrate positive qualities historically associated with women- cultural feminism
A
Differences approach: Alpha Bias
3
Q
the classification of individuals as female or male based on their genetic makeup, anatomy, and reproductive functions
A
sex
4
Q
the state of being male or female– the meanings that societies and individuals give to female and male categories
A
gender
5
Q
a person who favors political, economic, and social equality of women and men, and therefore favors the legal and social changes necessary to achieve that equality
A
feminist
6
Q
women of color
A
racism+classism+sexism
7
Q
- emphasizes OBJECTIVITY and control
- uses quantitative measures
- compares participants’ reposes to standard situation
A
Quantitative
8
Q
- emphasize SUBJECTIVE procedures
2. Focuses on women’s accounts of their own experience
A
Qualitative
9
Q
Participants’ manpulated in some way, typically in a laboratory setting.
A
Laboratory experiments
10
Q
participants’ behavior is observed in naturalistic settings, with no manipulation
A
naturalistic observations
11
Q
design uses 2 or more groups but participants are not randomly assigned or manipulated
Example: gender differences in math performance
A
quasi-experiments
12
Q
review and summarize many studies to form an impression of general trends on a particular topic
A
narrative approach
13
Q
statistical method of integrating results of many studies on the same topic
A
meta-analysis
14
Q
♀Leaper & Brown (2008) surveyed girls age 12-18
23% reported being discouraged in math, science, or computers by teachers, based on their gender
-32% reported being discouraged in these areas by boys
28% reported being discouraged in athletics by teachers/coaches, based on their gender
-54% reported being discouraged in this area by boys
A
sexism (common)
15
Q
modern sexism ( also called neosexism)
A
subtle prejudiced beliefs about women
16
Q
negative hostile attitudes toward women and adversarial belies about gender relations in which women are thought to spend most of their time trying to control men, through sexuality of feminism
A
hostile sexism
17
Q
beliefs about women that seem to the perpetrator to be kind or benevolent–in which women are honored and put on the proverbial pedestal
A
benevolent sexism
18
Q
- selecting the research topic
- personal interests
- assumptions about gender
- assumptions about race and other categories of social identity - formulating the hypothesis
- to see how relationships between two variables are close related and testable - designing the study
- choose a behavior and a way to measure it to element sex bias in studies
A
bias in psychological research 1 of 3
19
Q
- selecting research participants
- representative of the larger population?
- gender composition specified?
- other sampling limitations: race, socioeconomic status, sexuality, disability
A
bias in psychological research 2 of 3
5. selecting the instruments (measures)
bias in the questions that are asked on a standardize testing, like if the question is sports related then male have a advantage of the female counterparts because mostly females won’t have knowledge about sports
20
Q
bias in psychological research 3 of 3
- data analysis
- communicating the findings
- publishing
- avoiding gender-biased language
A
- interpretation of findings
- female deficit model - interpreting findings in a way that suggests female weakness or inferiority
- overgeneralization - inappropriate generalization
- assumption that presence of gender differences implies biological causes (hines, 2007)
21
Q
when some characteristics of the experimenter affect the way participants behave, thus affecting the research outcome
Solution: have several experimenters half male and half female
A
experimenter effects
22
Q
when the researcher’s expectations affect his or her observations and recording of the data solution: a “blind” study
A
observer effects
23
Q
- avoid single-gender research
- evaluated underlying theoretical models, assumptions, and questions asked for gender fairness
- both male and female researchers should collect data to attenute experimenter effects
A
gender fair research
-interpretations should be examined carefully for gender fairness
24
Q
model in which the male is seen as the norm fro all humans; the female is seen as a deviation from the norm
-Language: masculine pronouns are default
A
male as normative
25
male centered; belief that male is the norm
androcentrism
26
the belief that women are the source of evil or immorality in the world
Theme:
-the judeo-christian story of Adam and eve: eve is responsible for original sin
-ancient greek mythology - Pandora is responsible for releasing evil into the world
feminine evil
27
perceiver's expectation->
perceiver's behavior toward target->
target's behavior toward the perceiver (then starts at the beginning again)
self-filliing prophecy
28
a psychological theory originated by Freud; its basic assumption is that part of the human psyche is unconscious.
psychoanalytic theory
29
Libido- sex drive or life force
| Thanatos- Death force
Sigmund Freud
30
areas of the body that are particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation
Ex: lips/mouth, anal region, genitals
erogenous zone
31
Stage 1: Oral
-infant derives pleasure from sucking, eating; experiences world through mouth.
Stage 2: Anal
-toddler derives pleasure from defecating
Stages of Development (Freud) 1of 2
32
```
Stage 3: Phallic
ages 3-6: pleasure is the genitals; sexual feelings arise
Boys:
-oedipal complex
-castration anxiety
```
```
Stages of Development (Freud) 2 of 2
Girls:
-Electra complex
-Penis envy
-desire to be impregnated by father develops into maternal urges
-immature supersego
```
33
- Concepts cannot be evaluated scientifically to determine accuracy (how do we measure the unconscious)
- freud derived his ideas from work with patients who sought therapy: the theory describes disturbed, not normal behavior.
Criticisms of psychoanalytic theory
34
-Freudian theory articulates boys' childish view of girls
-importance of penis envy was overstated,, that the critical factor was actually womb envy, male's envy of woman's uterus and reproductive capacity.
-male achievement represents overcompensation for feelings of anatomical inferiority
-emphasized cultural and social influences and human growth
-
criticisms: Karen Horney (1885-1952)
35
-The Psychology of Women (1944)
-Extended Freud’s theory to later development,focusing on motherhood
-Focused on “feminine core” of personality,
including narcissism, masochism, passivity, instinct, and intuition
Variations on a Freudian Helene Deutsch -Masculinity complex — some women’s failure to adjust, seen in aggression, active masculine tendencies
36
```
-Youngest of Sigmund Freud’s
children, but only child to
continue father’s work
-Enormous impact on field of
psychoanalysis: founding child
psychoanalysis and play
therapy
-Founded a school for orphaned
children during WWII, studying
their behavior
```
variations on a Freudian Anna Freud
37
The Reproduction of Mothering (1978)
- Childcare done by women produces vastly different experiences for daughters than for
sons; daughters want to mother, sons devalue and dominate women
-The early, intensely close relationship with the mother affects the sense of self and attitudes toward women: expect women
to be caring, self-sacrificing
Nancy Chodorow ( 1 of 2)
- Girl sees similarity to mother, defines self in relational terms
- Boys define masculinity as non-femininity, and thus separate from mom and devalue women in process
- Mothering perpetuates itself and gendered division of labor
38
Chodorow’s work integrates feminism
Feminist reconstruction of Freudian theory: penis envy stems from the fact that the penis symbolizes the power men have in our society
Prescription for social change to eliminate inequities for women: men
must participate equally in childcare to break cycle of female devaluation
Nancy Chodorow (2 of 2)
♀ Testing Chodorow’s Theory
Mother-daughter pairs are physically and psychologically closer than mother-son pairs
♀ Criticisms of Chodorow’s Theory
Heterosexist bias: no attempt to understand lesbian development
Ignores influences of race and social class
Like Freud, Chodorow’s evidence stems from observations of clinical population
39
application of evolutionary theory explaining the social behavior of animals, including people.
Initially proposed by E.O. Wilson (1975)
e.g., how does evolution shape maternal behavior?
Sociobiology
40
First proposed by Charles Darwin (1881)
The process by which the fittest animals survive, reproduce, and pass their genes on to the next generation, whereas animals that are less fit do not reproduce and therefore do not pass on their genes
Fitness: animal’s relative contribution of genes to the next generation
Evolution by Natural Selection
41
when a social behavior is genetically influenced, the animal should behave so as to maximize fitness.
Central theorem of sociobiology
42
behaviors or other investments in the
offspring by the parent that increase the offspring’s chance of survival
Importance to psychology of women:
Females invest egg, pregnancy, nursing...
Parental investment:
But males must invest only sperm
Parent with greater investment should care for young—quality, not quantity
Other parent should try to produce as many offspring as possible—quantity, not quality
43
Why do women do the childcare?
Greater parental investment
| Maternity is always certain, paternity is not
44
Exception to pattern of maternal care: Songbirds equal parenting
Monogamous mating system makes paternity certain
| Need food from two parents
45
- Babies are born helpless, dependent, in need of care
- Monogamous mating systems are adaptive
- Female orgasm evolved to keep the parents together
Explaining female orgasm
46
Tolerance of male promiscuity and disapproval of female promiscuity is adaptive, given the gender differences in parental investment
Explaining the double standard
47
“males fight, females choose” — process by
which members of one gender (usually males) compete with each other for mating privileges with members of the other gender
(usually females), and members of the other gender (females) choose to mate only with certain preferred members of the first gender (males)
Sexual selection
48
Humans’complex psychological mechanisms are the result of evolution based on natural selection
Evolutionary Psychology
49
women and men have different short- and long-term mating strategies
♂ It is to men’s evolutionary advantage to inseminate many women, so they invest in short-term mating (especially because they can’t be certain of paternity), preferring younger women who are at peak fertility
tal investment, they put energy into long-term mating strategies to ensure a man’s commitment to provide for family, preferring men who possess resources
Sexual strategies theory
♀Because women have greater parental investment, they put energy into long-term mating strategies to ensure a man’s commitment to provide for family, preferring men who possess resources
50
Biology is often a convenient rationalization for perpetuating the status quo
e.g., sexual selection makes men genetically dominant and women genetically subordinate
♀ Sociobiologists view data from an androcentric perspective, only discussing data that support their androcentric theories
feminist criticisms (1of 2)
51
Mother Nature: Maternal Instincts and How They Shape the Human Species (1999)
Women have evolved to care for their children and ensure their survival, but in reality these evolved
tendencies are miles away from romanticized Victorian notions of self-sacrificing motherhood.
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy (1999)
| e.g., all female primates combine work and family:they must be ambitious, successful foragers
52
re-analyzed Buss’ cross-cultural data and
proposed an alternative to his sexual
strategies theory
Eagly & Wood (1999)
53
a theory of the origin of psychological gender differences that focuses on the social structure, particularly the division of labor between men and women
Social-structural theory (Eagly & Wood, 1999)
54
something that occurs after a behavior and
| makes the behavior more likely to occur in the future
Reinforcement
55
when people do what they see others doing; we imitate same-gender adults more than other-gender adults
Imitation
56
when a person observes someone doing something, and then does it at a later time
Observational learning
57
Effectiveness of imitation and reinforcements in shaping children’s behavior, in particular gender-typed behaviors such as aggression
Bandura (1965) found boys to be more aggressive than girls
gender differences disappeared when children were offered reinforcements for being aggressive
Evidence for social learning theory:
58
process focuses on relevant behaviors;
| e.g., pay more attention to same-gender models
Attention
59
monitor own behavior and regulate it
| according to gender norms
Self-regulation
60
belief in ability to accomplish a particular task, plays a role in maintaining gender-typed behaviors
Self-efficacy
61
Kohlberg (1966) extended cognitive principles to realm of gender roles
Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
62
individual’s knowledge that she or he is a female or male; develops ~18-24 months
Gender identity
63
child’s understanding that gender is a permanent, unchanging characteristic of the self; develops ~5-7 years; crucial for adoption of gender roles
Gender constancy
64
Children self-socialize based on gender constancy
Gender-role learning as one aspect of cognitive development
65
Although it is an example of new feminist scholarship, including women’s perspectives, evidence suggests that the gender differences
are small
Evidence for Gilligan’s reformulation? (3 of 3)
Men use a justice perspective slightly more (d = .19)
Women use a care perspective slightly more (d = -.28)
Most people use a combination of both perspectives in moral reasoning
66
-Children who have acquired gender constancy imitate same-gender models
-Preschoolers who have acquired gender constancy are more stereotyped in their
views of adult occupations than are preschoolers who do not have gender
constancy
-BUT, children’s gender-typed interests appear before gender constancy (~ 2-3
years)…
Evaluation of theory
67
Kohlberg concluded that people go
through a series of three levels (each
divided into 2 stages) in their moral
reasoning as they mature: (1 of 2)
- Preconventional: punishments;rewards
- Conventional: approval/disapproval; authority orientation
- Postconventional: internalized ethical principles
68
The important part isn’t whether Heinz
should steal, but rather why?
Most adults don’t reach level III: males reach stage 4, but females only reach stage 3
(2 of 2)
Kohlberg’s Heinz dilemma
69
is a general knowledge framework that a
| person has about a particular topic; it processes, organizes new information on topic
schema
♀ Our perception and memory of information are a result of an interaction of incoming information with our preexisting schema
70
-Main character is a man—girls and women may have
trouble identifying with him
-Kohlberg’s sample was all male
-Female deficit interpretation that women are
deficient by only reaching stage 3; maybe theory is deficient instead
```
Gilligan (1982) provided a feminist
critique of Kohlberg’s work on
moral development
Gilligan provided feminist reformulation
(1 of 3)
```
71
Males use a justice perspective: an approach to moral reasoning that emphasizes fairness and the rights of the individual
Females use a care perspective: an approach to moral reasoning that emphasizes relationships between people and caring for others and the self
Gilligan said that males and females reason differently about moral dilemmas (2 of 3)
72
a statistical technique that allows a researcher to combine the results of many research studies
Meta-analysis
73
refers to the magnitude (i.e., size) of a difference
| when it is expressed on a standardized scale.
Effect size
74
```
The statistic d is one of the most popular statistics for describing the effect size of the difference between two
means.
♀ Many researchers use
Cohen’s suggestions for
describing values of d:
```
what is Cohen's d:
75
(Bem, 1981) is a person’s general knowledge framework about gender; it processes and organizes information on the basis of gender linked associations
gender schema
76
the gender schema is more central to self-concept for some people—those who are
highly gender-typed
Individual differences
77
Gender is a class variable in our society; males and females
are unequal in status
Men have greater power than women
Sexism is pervasive, existing in political, academic, economic,
and interpersonal spheres
```
Gender as status and power
“The personal is political”: personal, individual experiences are
manifestations of larger political issues
Sources of power
Threat of violence/harm
Economic power
Ability to promote ideologies
Relational power
```
78
A central issue for feminism because women’s sexuality has been repressed and depressed, but rarely expressed
Women’s sexuality is controlled by men
Sexuality
79
women should have the opportunities and rights equal to those of men; work to reform current system
Liberal feminism (equal)
80
women have special, unique qualities that
| differentiate them from men; our patriarchal society devalues those qualities
Cultural feminism (not equal)
81
oppression of women is just one instance of
| oppression based on class, rooted in capitalism
Marxist feminism (money)
82
patriarchal values have saturated society to
| such an extent that radical changes are needed, such as female only space safe from oppression
Radical feminism (oppression: men try to keep women down so they can remain the dominant gender)
83
questions rationality and objectivity as
| methods for getting at truth; advocates social constructionist epistemology
Postmodern feminism (social constructivist epistemology)
84
American society has well-defined roles for males and for females; such roles are constricting to individuals
Gender roles and socialization
85
Feminists view the sources of women’s problems as being external
External vs. internal attributions of problems
86
- Major technique of analysis, structure of organization, method of practice, and theory of social change of the women’s movement (MacKinnon, 1982)
- Focus on seeing personal experiences in larger political context
Consciousness raising (C-R Groups)
87
An approach that simultaneously considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage
Intersectionality
88
“Do you consider yourself to be a feminist?”
29% of women say yes
17% of men say yes
“Has the women’s movement achieved anything that has made your life better?”
```
Attitudes toward feminism
55% say yes
♀ Evaluation of feminist theories…
New Right & Conservatives
Some propositions are difficult to evaluate
scientifically
```
89
theoretical viewpoint that
humans do not discover reality directly; rather, they
construct meanings for events in the environment based
on own prior experiences and beliefs
Examples: Two-Spirit; pregnancy and ritual of couvade
Gender as a stimulus variable as well as person variable
Social construction of gender: social constructionism
90
Women’s right to vote
First-Wave: Late 1800s - early 1900s
91
Sexual freedom, reproductive rights, equal opportunity in education, domestic violence, sexual violence
Second-Wave: 1960s - 1990s
92
Aims to rectify shortcomings of second-wave
| Aimed at academic movement to reform thought and research
Third-Wave: 1900s - present
93
```
Psychoanalytic
Evolutionary
Social Learning
Cognitive-developmental
Gender Schema
Feminist Theories
```
Six major theoretical perspectives
94
widely shared beliefs about the attributes of females and males
Gender Stereotypes
95
traits stereotypically associated with women such as sympathy and warmth, which reflect a concern about other people
Gender Stereotypes: Communion
96
traits stereotypically associated with men,
| such as achievement orientation and ambitiousness, which reflect a concern about accomplishing tasks
Gender Stereotypes: Agency
97
Social Categorization facilitates Comprehension
Helps simplify our social perceptions
Can lead us astray…
The Content — Why associate ♀ with communion and ♂ with agency?
The Process — Why do we use stereotypes
98
Stereotypes of women and men stem from the association of women with the domestic role and men with the employee role (Eagly & Diekman, 2006)
The Content — Why associate ♀ with communion and ♂ with agency?: Social Role Theory
99
Within an ethnic group, males and females
have some stereotyped traits in common, but
also some that differ
Within a gender, some stereotyped traits are common across ethnic groups, but others
differ
100
Some gender-role stereotypes turn out to be true
→ real differences
e.g., aggression
♀Some don’t!
IQ
♀ If a gender difference is found, we must
determine whether the difference is biologically or environmentally caused
e.g., is gender difference in aggression innate?
stereotypes, real differences, and the nature-nurture issue
♀ If a gender difference is found, we must
determine whether the difference is biologically or environmentally caused
e.g., is gender difference in aggression innate?
101
e.g., female chimpanzees are promiscuous, not at all choosy
♀ Sociobiology rests on an outmoded version of evolutionary theory that modern biologists consider naïve
feminist criticisms (2 of 2)
e.g., focus on individual survival rather than group and species survival
♀ Many studies contradicting evolutionary psychology are beginning to emerge
e.g., waist-to-hip ratio research is not as conclusive as once thought
102
learned, automatic associations between social categories and other attributes
Implicit stereotypes
103
```
Implicit association test (IAT)
Reaction time measured
www.implicit.harvard.edu
Math and gender implicit stereotypes
People respond faster to the male and math pairing
than to the female and math pairing
```
Science and gender implicit stereotypes
Associated with science performance at the national
level (r = .60)
Stereotypes and gender gap in science mutually
reinforcing
104
being at risk of personally confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group:
Negative stereotypes lead to self-doubt because one may confirm the stereotype,
damaging performance
e.g., stereotypes about women
and math hurt women’s performance (Spencer et al.,1999)
Stereotype threat
105
How do we counteract stereotype threat
Positive role models
| Remind of positive accomplishments
106
What does it mean to say that males and females are
| different?
- Even when there are average gender differences in a particular trait, almost always there are still large individual differences
- Distributions overlap
107
What do we conclude when studies contradict one another?
-We can use meta-analysis — a statistical technique that allows a researcher to combine the results of many separate research studies
108
1. Locate all previous studies on question
2. Compute effect size of difference, d =(Mm ― Mf)/S Small (d=.20), moderate (d=.50), and large (d=.80)
3. Average all the values of d over all the studies
Steps of meta-analysis
109
Often a very interesting gender difference is found and receives a lot of publicity
Evaluate critically
| Replicate the finding: repeat a research study and obtain the same basic results
110
behavior intended to harm another person
Males are more physically aggressive than females, d = .55
Finding has been replicated in many cultures (Archer, 2004)
Difference appears ~2 yrs
Aggression
| Gender similarities in verbal aggression, d = .09
111
behavior intended to hurt others by damaging relationships
Girls are slightly more relationally aggressive than males,
d = -.13 (teacher reports) to -.19 (peer reports)
Relational aggression
112
Aggression: What causes gender differences?
♀ Aggression part of male role, passivity part of female role
Deindividuation research supports this link
♀ Boys imitate men, who are aggressive, and girls imitate women, who are unaggressive
Boys are rewarded for aggression; some types of punishment may increase aggression
♀ Girls identify with women, who typically administer
discipline, making the punishment for aggression more effective in girls
♀ Probably: small biologically-based gender differences that are magnified by cultural forces
113
level of global positive regard that one has for oneself
Self-esteem
114
```
Elementary school children: d = .16
Middle-school children: d = .23
High-schoolers, d = .33
Adults: d = .10
Older adults: d = .03
```
Gender differences vary across the lifespan
| Gender differences are larger in White (d =.20) than Black (d = -.04) samples
115
```
Domain-specific self-esteem:
Physical appearance, d = .35
♀ Athletics, d = .41
♀ Behavioral conduct, d = -.17
♀ Morals/ethics, d = -.38
```
♀ Math, d = .26
♀ General academics: gender similarities
♀ Social acceptance: gender similarities
♀ Are women lacking in self-confidence or are men overconfident?
Avoid the female-deficit interpretation!!!
116
Men use a justice perspective slightly more (d =.19)
♀Women use a care perspective slightly more (d = -.28)
♀Most people use a combination of both
perspectives in moral reasoning
Moral reasoning
117
Girls and women are more fearful, d = -.30
(Feingold, 1995)
Difference is larger in self-reports than in direct observation
Are girls and women more willing to report fear?
Gender role stereotypes
Anxiety: Regarding psychiatrically diagnosable phobias, women clearly outnumber men
118
```
Males are more active than females, d = .50
♀Developmental change:
Infants, d = .29
Preschoolers, d = .44
Older children, d = .64
```
```
activity:
Situational constraints
In presence of peers, d = .62
Alone, d = .44
♀ 80-90% of hyperactive children are boys
♀ Maturational differences may be cause
```
119
feeling what another is feeling
Empathy
120
Empathy: ♀Women are stereotyped as more empathetic
Meta-analysis (Eisenberg & Lennon, 1983):
Self-report measures: large difference favoring females
Observations: moderate difference favoring females
Physiological measures: small difference favoring females
Overall, women are more empathic, but difference is small
121
Males help more than females, d = .34 (Eagly & Crowly, 1986)
Surprised?
Stronger effects → dangerous
Stronger effects → observed by others
Nurturing and caretaking (part of female role) not usually measured in helping behavior studies, but when they have been ♀ help more than
122
combination of masculine and feminine
psychological characteristics in an
individual
-Based on 2-dimensional model of masculinity and femininity
Androgyny
123
```
TWO scales yield four ratings:
Masculinity
Femininity
Androgyny
Undifferentiated
♀1/3 of college students are androgynous
```
Measuring androgyny bem sex role inventory (1974)
124
Androgynous people should do better in a wider variety of situations because they are capable of being feminine or masculine when the situation calls for it
Feminine and androgynous people were more nurturing
The good listener study
125
Androgyny is freeing, but creates demanding ideal
Some view as a sellout to men
Definition of androgyny rests on traditional assumptions about masculinity and femininity
Personality traits versus actual behavior
Criticisms
126
because the male gender role is more highly valued than the female role is, a male is seen as lowering his social status by engaging in female-stereotypic behaviors, whereas a female performing male-stereotypic behaviors is perceived as raising hers (e.g., McCreary, 1994)
Social Status Hypothesis
127
cross-gender behavior in boys but not girls is considered a sign of actual or potential same-sex sexual orientation (e.g., McCreary, 1994)
Sexual Orientation Hypothesis
128
♂ Oedipal Complex; ♀ Electra Complex [Phallic Stage]
Psychoanalytic Theory
129
gendered behaviors are innate and evolved differently in ♂ and ♀ to ensure survival
Evolutionary Theory
130
children learn gender roles through reinforcement (rewards/punishments), imitation, and observational learning
Social Learning Theory
131
children are active learners, attempting to make sense of their social environment
Gender identity —knowledge that one is female or male ~18-24 months
Gender constancy —understanding that gender is a permanent, unchanging
characteristic of the self ~5 to 7 years (crucial for adoption of gender roles)
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
132
children develop an interrelated set of ideas
| schema) about gender roles through interaction (societal norms
Gender Schema Theory
133
Children go through 3 stages in gender role
development that parallel Kohlberg’s stages of
moral development (Pleck, 1975)
1. Gender-role concepts are disorganized, child may not even know own gender; early childhood
2. Child knows rules of gender roles and motivated to conform to them and make others conform;
childhood through adolescence
3. People manage to transcend limitations of gender roles, develop androgyny
134
Gender stereotyping and gender-role adoption 1‐5 years : • "Gender‐appropriate" toy preferences emerge. • Gender stereotyping of activities,occupations, and behaviors appears.
• Gender segregation in peer interaction
emerges and strengthens.• Girls' preference for play in pairs, boys' for play in larger groups, appears.
Gender identity: Gender constancy develops in a three‐stage sequence: gender labeling, gender stability, and gender consistency.
135
Gender stereotyping and gender-role adoption 6‐11 years: • Gender segregation reaches a peak. • Gender‐stereotyped knowledge expands, especially for personality traits and
achievement areas. • Gender stereotyping peaks between ages 5and 7, then becomes more flexible
Gender identity: Masculine" gender indentity strengthens among boys; girls' gender identity becomes more androgynous.
136
Gender stereotyping and gender-role adoption 12‐20 years: • Gender‐role conformity increases in early adolescence and then declines. • Gender segregation becomes less
pronounced.
Gender identity: Gender identity becomes
more traditional in early adolescence ("gender
intensification"), after which highly stereotypic
self‐perceptions decline.
137
Beware of focusing on gender differences: gender similarities are the rule
♀ 30% of meta-analyses on psychological gender differences were close to zero (d ≤ .10)
♀ An additional 48% were small (d between .11 and .35)
| ♀ Gender differences depend heavily of the context
138
communication between women and men is as difficult as communication between people from different cultures
Different cultures hypothesis (Tannen, 1991)
139
Women: conversation maintenance; establish and maintain relationships
Men: conversation dominance; display knowledge, avoid disclosure
Different goals in communication
140
students can detect gender-related dimensions of others’ speech (♀ speech more esthetic with more social intelligence; ♂ speech more dynamic)
Gender-linked language effect (Mulac,) 2006University students can’t identify sex of speakers when speeches are transcribed (Mulac, 2006)
141
a short phrase added to a sentence that
turns it into a question
e.g., “It’s a nice day, isn’t it?”
Women use more tag questions than men (d = -.23)
How do we interpret this finding?
Are women communicating uncertainty or weakness?
Or, are women trying to encourage communication?
Tag questions
142
phrases such as “I may be wrong, but…”
| Women use disclaimers more than men
Disclaimers
143
phrases such as “sort of” that weaken or soften a statement
| Women use more hedges than men (d = -.15)
Hedges
144
adverbs such as very, really, or vastly
| Women use intensifiers more than men (d = -.38)
Intensifiers
145
Lab studies: d = -.28
Larger gender differences in same-gender groups
Naturalistic studies: d = -.09
Context moderates gender difference in
| tentativeness
146
```
Men interrupt women more than women interrupt men
♀ Interruptions have multiple meanings:
express power, control
request clarification
express agreement or support
express disagreement
change the subject
```
Women make more affiliative interruptions
| ♀ Men make more intrusive interruptions
147
Girls are slightly more talkative than boys (d = -.11)
♀Girls engage in more affiliative speech (e.g.,
praise or agreement) than boys (d = -.25)
♀Boys engage in more assertive speech (e.g.,
criticisms) than girls (d = .10)
Children speech: ♀Some research does suggest that this changes
with age: men talk more than women, speak
more frequently, and speak for longer!
148
Women express more emotion, disclose more personal information, use more hedges and intensifiers
when discussing gendered topics
not when discussing gender-neutral topics
Participants respond differently to a fictitious netpal depending on gendered content from netpal’s communication
Gender differences in e-mail
149
Women have smaller interpersonal space than men
Women approaching others, d = -.54
Others approaching women, d = -.86
Interpersonal distance
150
Reflects patterns of power and dominance
Visual dominance ratio — the percentage of time looking while speaking relative to the percentage of time looking while listening
Men show higher visual dominance
BUT, when women have power, they become visually dominant
Eye Contact
151
Why do women smile more than men?
Happiness/friendliness?
Communicate subservience?
Part of female role?
Gender difference is larger when participants know they
are being observed (LaFrance et al., 1987)
Women are judged more harshly when they don’t smile,than are men (Deutsch, 1987)
Women smile more than men do, d = -.41
| Gender difference is larger among Whites compared to African Americans
152
male is regarded as standard, norm (e.g., use
of he for a neutral pronoun)
Language becomes ambiguous
Female-as-the-exception phenomenon — if a category is considered normatively male and there is a female example of the category, gender is noted because the female is the exception; byproduct ofandrocentrism
Male as Normative
153
words for males and females often have different connotations (e.g, dog vs. bitch; master vs. mistress; stud vs. slut)
Parallel Words
154
we avoid using “woman” and use euphemisms
| such as lady, girl to be polite or less threatening
Euphemisms
155
women are called by terms that make them less
| mature than they are (e.g., girl, baby, chick)
Infantilizing
156
Sexist language is a symptom of larger problem
If we change how we think, language will follow
Alternatively…
Language reflects thought processes (1 of 2)
157
Using sexist language shapes our thoughts about women and men
Whorfian hypothesis (Whorf, 1956) — theory that the language we learn influences how we think
Language encodes power inequalities, can normalize bias
♀ Both processes occur to some extent
♀ Pronoun choice affects how children think about women,
women’s occupations…
158
Few people have heard of a job in factories, being a wudgemaker. Wudges are made of plastic, oddly shaped, and are an important part of video games. The wudgemaker
works from a plan or pattern posted at eye level as ___ puts together the pieces at a table while ___ is sitting down. Eleven plastic pieces must be snapped together. Some of the pieces are tiny, so that ___ must have good coordination in ___ fingers. Once all eleven pieces are together, ___ must test out the wudge to make sure that all of the moving pieces more properly. The wudgemaker is well paid and must be a high school graduate, but ___ does not have to have gone to college to get the job.
Hyde (1984) (example of stereotyping)
159
Eliminate generic masculine forms in your language Tip # 1 – change from singular to plural
When a doctor prescribes birth control pills, he should first inquire whether the patient has a history of blood clotting problems.
When doctors prescribe birth controls, they should first inquire whether the patient has a history of blood clotting problems.
----Institutional change is underway
Textbook publishers, APA, Webster’s
Tip #2 – reword to eliminate the need for pronouns
A doctor prescribing birth control pills should first inquire whether the patient has a history of blood clotting problems.
Tip #3 – use “he or she”
When a doctor prescribes birth control pills, he or she should first
inquire whether the patient has a history of blood clotting problems.
160
Similar to the phenomenon of male-as-normative (female-as-exception) in language, are people whose gender identity matches their bodies the norm?
cisgender, cis man, cis woman (vs. transgender, trans man, trans woman, respectively)
Language, Women, and Careers
Women who use tentative rather than assertive speech are more influential to men
Women who use assertive rather than tentative speech are more influential to women
Women must strike a delicate balance in speech!
161
Tannen’s different cultures hypothesis
gender differences in communication styles are actually small and depend on context, and
the meaning of gender differences is unclear
Male-as-normative language pattern may
| contribute to early social construction of gender for children and the perpetuation of gender inequality in society.
162
Experiences and biology combine; concepts of object permanence, habits
Sensorimotor 0-2
163
Symbolic thinking reflective of use of words and images
Preoperational 2-7
164
Logical reasoning about concrete events;
concepts of conservation, classification,
serial ordering
Concrete operational 7-11
165
Abstract thinking, logical, hypothetical
| reasoning, idealistic
Formal operational 11-15
166
Similarities are the rule for most behaviors
However, boys are more active (d = .29)
Temperament
Girls score higher on inhibitory control (d = -.41)
Girls score higher on perceptual sensitivity (d = -.38)
No gender differences in negative affect or mood (d = -.06
♀ Gender Differences
167
Parents generally treat boys and girls similarly
Mothers’ expectations of infant crawling abilities
Baby X Study (Seavy et al., 1975)
♀ Adults’Treatment of Infants
168
decreased response to stimuli
Habituation:
169
recovery of habituated response
Dishabituation
170
Gender identity (~2)
♀ Labeling boys and girls (~3 )
♀ Associate attributions and occupations with gender
♀ Preschoolers are gender essentialists
♀ Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental model
♀ Gender discrimination
Gender learning (1 of 2)
171
(Tobin et al., 2010) — gender identity, stereotypes, and self perceptions influence each other via stereotype emulation and identity construction
Gender learning (2 of 2): Gender self-socialization model
172
the process by which society conveys to the individual its expectations for his or her behavior, values, and beliefs
Parent socialization (1 of 3): Socialization
173
Channeling or shaping
| ♀ Have different expectations for boys and girls (if they havetraditional gender-role attitudes)
```
Parent socialization (2 of 3)
♀ Direct instruction
♀ Modeling
♀ Gender socialization practices vary across different ethnic groups in the US
```
174
Talk differently with daughters vs. sons, though much of gender teaching in
parents’ talk is subtle, implicit
Play differently with daughters vs. sons
Parent socialization (3 of 3): Differential treatment
175
Teachers pay more attention to boys
♀ Teachers praise girls for decorous conduct and boys for good academic performance
♀Gender salience in the classroom
Socialization in school ♀ When teachers receive gender-equity training, they respond with more equitable teaching
♀Remember the self-fulfilling prophecy?
176
Toy commercials: usually gender-specific
♀ Picture books: feminine traits in female characters
♀ Video games: patterns of extreme gender
stereotyping, including violence against women, played more by boys
♀ Sexualization – sexually objectifying a person
socialization in media
177
Gender intensification
♀ Erik Erikson (1950)
Primary adolescent developmental crisis is quest for identity – identity vs. role confusion
Androcentric theory — focus was on males; girls in a state of “identity suspension
searching for identity (1 of 2)
178
Females define selves in interpersonal terms, developing interpersonal and autonomous identities, whereas boys mainly develop an autonomous identity
searching for identity (2 of 2) ♀ Individual Differences — adolescent girls vary considerably among themselves in what components they believe will shape their identities
179
Girls’ friendships
More intimate
More self-disclosure and emotional support
Girls tend to have a few very close friends
peer pressure in adolescence (1 of 2): Close friendships/best friends tend to be with people of same gender
♀ Romantic Relationships
180
Boys’ friendships
Less intimate
Shared group activities
Larger groups
peer pressure in adolescence (2 of 2): Close friendships/best friends tend to be with people of same gender
181
period of life during which sexual organs mature and the ability to reproduce emerges
Primary sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics
Menarche ‒ the first menstrual period
Puberty
182
Different growth spurts
Girls finish puberty about two years before boys
Girls gain more fatty tissue than boys; boys gain more
muscle tissue than girls
Gender differences in puberty
183
```
Changing body… body image…
co-rumination — ”fat talk”
♀ Sexualization intensifies
♀ Sexual harassment by peers
♀ Self-esteem
```
sexualization and objectification (1 of 2)
184
girls learn to view their bodies as if they were outside observers
sexualization and objectificaiton (1 of 2): Objectified Body Consciousness
185
```
86% of American women marry by ~40
Average age of first marriage: ~25
Jesse Bernard (1972)
His and Hers marriage
Marriage is better for men than for women, but good for both
Quality of marriage is most important
```
♀Heterosexual Marriage
♀Lesbian and Bisexual Relationships (there is marriage)
186
```
First Trimester
Morning sickness
Heightened well-being or emotional turmoil?
Second Trimester
Feel fetal movement
```
Pregnancy and childbirth (3 of 3): Three Trimesters
Third Trimester
Uterus puts pressure on lungs and stomach
187
First birth at ~24
♀ Physical and psychological changes of pregnancy are strongly influenced by contextual factors of woman’s life
♀ Feminist analysis
Medicalization of pregnancy and childbirth
Childbirth options
pregnancy and childbirth (2 of 2)
188
-characterized by crying, anxiety, and
irritability, typically begins three to four days after childbirthand lasts about two to four days May primarily reflect adjustment to parenthood
-Widely reported around the world
Maternity blues
189
severe feelings of depression that
last for weeks or months after delivery
Associated with youth, poverty, less education, first time motherhood, history of mental health problems
Postpartum depression: Associated with having idealized cultural constructions of “perfect mother” that do not match experience
Possibly associated with drastic drops in estrogen and progesterone levels after birth
190
inability to conceive a child after a year of trying
Blockage of fallopian tubes
Failure of ovaries to produce eggs
Uterine fibroids
Infertility
Endometriosis
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Lifestyle factors
191
```
In vitro fertilization (IVF)
Parents’ frozen embryos
Donated eggs
Challenges
Low success rate
Risks to babies
Expensive
```
Approaches to infertility
| Surrogate motherhood
192
Parenthood associated with psychological distress
♀ Motherhood mandate — the cultural belief that all women
should have children, that is, be mothers
♀ Mother Wars
Motherhood (1 of 2):
| Most women gain satisfaction from motherhood, but the degree of satisfaction depends on contextual factors
193
Intensive mothering and impossible ideals
♀ Voluntary childlessness (or child-free) in women
Higher in autonomy and achievement orientation
♀ Psychology’s history of mother-blaming
motherhood (2 of 2)
194
40-50% of all marriages end in divorce
Ethnic group differences
♀ 70-75% of divorced women remarry
♀ Research on psychological effects of divorce is mixed
Role strain and role overload
Less likely to get child support, more likely to live in poverty
Divorce: Research on economic effects of divorce
Divorced women and their children are new underclass
Divorced men experience a 42% increase in standard of living, whereas women experience a 35-73% decrease (Amato, 2000; Weitzman, 1986)
♀ Divorce is harder on Black women
195
21% of American women are single, never married
Ethnic group differences
♀ Advantages of being single
Freedom
Sense of self-sufficiency and competence
single woman: Women who are satisfied with long-term single status
Satisfying employment that provides economic independence
Connections to next generation
Strong social support network
196
depression that middle-aged people supposedly feel when their children are grown and have left home, leaving an empty nest
Empty nest syndrome
197
Although some women are momentarily sad, lonely, or frightened, they weren’t depressed
Predominant feeling is relief
empty nest or prime of life: Lillian B. Rubin (1979)
198
70% of 60-65 year old women describe current lives as better than when they were younger
Prime of Life
199
Increasingly common
♀ Harder to conceive
♀ About half of pregnancies among women over 40 unintended
Childbirth after 40 (1 of 2): Higher risks
Higher incidence of multiples
More miscarriage More preterm, low-birth-weight, stillborn babies Higher levels of complication during pregnancy More chromosomal abnormalities More likely to have cesarean sections
200
```
Most babies healthy
♀ Childbearing in the later years
The example of Carmen Bousada
Controversies
Age and gender discrimination
```
Childbirth after 40 (2 of 2)
201
Menopause
♀ Body Worries, Again
Investment in appearance, body dissatisfaction, and television exposure all predict actual consideration of cosmetic surgery (menopause triggers physiological
changes)
Grandmotherhood
Ethnic group differences in grandmother role
Grandmother effect
202
Ethnic group differences in grandmother role
| Grandmother effect
Grandmotherhood
203
Most studies based on all-male samples
Women are more likely to retire because of spouse’s retirement
Income concerns
Retirement
204
cultural norms by which men’s status increases with age but women’s decreases
Double standard of aging
205
Although women live longer than men, they have more chronic illnesses
Or do they just report them more?
Physical Health
206
More and more lopsided with advancing age
60-69 years → 115 women: 100 men
80-89 years → 180:100
90 + years → 294:100
♀Many elderly women live alone
| Ethnic group differences: living with extended family
207
♀ Women are more likely to be widowed than men are
♀ Opportunities for remarriage are limited because of lopsided gender ratio
♀ In 1st year following spouse’s death, widows show increased depression, but then level off and rebound
♀ Financial strain common among widows
| ♀ Death of spouse is harder on men than it is on women in terms of depression, illness, and death
208
Infancy
gender similarities mostly, though girls show higher inhibitory control &
perceptual sensitivity
♀ Childhood
Gender differences in toy & game preferences, gender-segregated play
♀ Adolescence
Interpersonal and autonomous identity development
♀ Emerging and Early Adulthood
Good marriage benefits women’s mental and physical health
Medicalization of pregnancy and childbirth
♀ Middle Age
Most women fare well during “empty nest”
♀ Old Age
Grandmother role is important and meaningful for many women
Sop3742
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