1
Q
What was the view towards sex in the victorian era
A
- western world views on sex was influenced by religious doctrines (sex was censored)
- concerned that high levels of sexual activity would lead to tax overload and diminished resources, but contraceptives = illegal
2
Q
shadow banning
A
- algorithms set in place to remove/block sexual content and their creators
- also have removed content bringing awareness
- disproportionally affects marginalized groups
3
Q
SGD portrayal on TV
A
- still lacks diversity
- sexualization poses greatest risk fo black females
- marginalized group shown in negative light or very stereotypical
- segregated representation
- black men given roles during sex without intimacy and with violence
4
Q
fantasy model of sex
A
- media portraying sexual acts without safer-sex behaviours and no consequences (“heat of the moment)
5
Q
ethnocentrism
A
judging other cultures solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture –> affects our understanding of human sexuality
6
Q
What 2 persistent female stereotypes did the story of Eve reveal?
A
- women give in too easily to temptation
- they are sources of temptation for men
- christianity also gave rise to the dichotomy of women either being madonnas (pure like mary), or whores (like eve)
7
Q
Jewish views on sex
A
- contradictory bc good (God’s creation) but many sexual acts were punishable
- polygamy permitted early on but now monogamous
- primary purpose of sex is to re-establish marital bonds
- sex is allowed without possibility of conception, contraception allowed –> babies = good bc propagate ppl
- sex is woman’s right and men’s duty to provide pleasure
- divorce allowed
- masturbation, and sexual acts btwn men are forbidden
8
Q
Christian views on sex
A
- early church leaders condemned sexuality
- augustine thought missionary was the only acceptable position
- Bible itself not anti-feminist, but interpretation by church makes it seem strongly opposed to women’s equality
- abortion and contraception not allowed in catholic religion, nor is same sex acts as it is a waste of seed and a form of lust
- sole purpose of sex is procreation
9
Q
Islam views on sex
A
- treatment of woman varies depending on the Qur’anic interpretation and political motivations of the time
- when Muhammad was alive, women treated more equally and celibacy not promoted like other religions of the time (but sex still within marriage)
- sex for pleasure promoted (so birth control allowed)
- masturbation forbidden as well as sexual behaviour between men
10
Q
Hindu views on sex
A
- no unified set of beliefs, so varying views
- sex is necessary part of life as long as it occurs within religious duty and context (includes masturbation)
- marriage includes procreation and pleasure, divorce only allowed under civil code, not religious
- same-sex orientation as natural/biological condition, but should be avoided if possible
- third gender known as hijra
11
Q
Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
A
- oral (0-2) –> mouth –> fixation might lead to dependence or aggression
- anal (2-4) –> anus –> fixation might lead to strong focus on cleanliness and orderliness, OR carelessness and lack of self-control
- phallic (4-6) –> Oedpius complex and castration anxiety in boys and electra complex in girls; inability to resolve these complex will cause problems w gender-role identification and adult relationships
- latency (6-puberty) –> libidinal energy dormant/waiting to reemerge in final stage
- genital –> physical psychosexual changes reawaken repressed needs and sexual feelings redirected to sexual gratification
12
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
- Pavlov
- has been used to understand the development of some forms of compulsive sexual behaviours and fetishes and used to develop treatments for unwanted sexual behaviours
- used to explain sexual orientation
13
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
- Skinner
- sex is primary reinforcer and behaviour that can be shaped by rewards and punishment meaning sexuality is both learned and innate
- learning ab sexuality can take place over time, so sex therapy has strong educational element
14
Q
Social Learning Theory
A
- Rotter and Bandura
- behaviour is also learned by observing other ppls behaviour, attitudes and outcomes, and choose behaviours based on expectations about rewards and punishment
- used to explain things like sexual development, and contraception use
- basis for intervention programs designed to promote healthy behaviours
- high levels of self-efficacy = positive sexual adjustment and satisfaction
15
Q
Social Exchange Theory
A
- try to maximize rewards and minimize costs based on 4 elements
- balance of costs and rewards, equity/equality, comparison level (what a person expects to get out of relationship), and comparison level for alternatives (current relationship compared to other available options)
16
Q
Cognitive Theories
A
- thoughts are subject to misconceptions, false assumptions, and errors in evaluating situations –> lead to distress, disorders, and harmful behaviours
- these theories explain many sexual problems and patterns of behaviour
17
Q
Genetic Theory
A
- genetics can explain sexual orientation and gender identity
- concordance rate of same-sex attraction higher in identical twins
- sexual problems can have genetic/biological causes (klinefelter’s, erectile dysfunction)
18
Q
Sociobiological Theory
A
- application of evolutionary biology to explain social behaviour
- intrasexual competition (males compete), and intersexual (female chooses male)
- differences in investment for reproduction
19
Q
Dual Control Model of Sexuality
A
- Bancroft and Janssen suggests that sexual response involves interaction btwn sexual excitatory and sexually inhibitory neurobiological processes (adaptive development)
20
Q
Sociological Theory
A
- importance of social institutions such as family, and religion on regulating sexuality
- sexuality linked to societal structures that determine to a large degree how sexuality is defined, expressed and regulated within a certain culture or community
21
Q
Social Script Theory
A
- traditonal sexual script (TSS) suggests there are specific sequences of behaviours that individuals deem appropriate for particular sexual situations
- e.g. kissing –> touching –> oral –> intercourse
22
Q
Ecological Model
A
- individuals interact with their environment in many ways and this can affect sexual function
- individual’s well being and sexual satisfaction (microsystem) –> relationship status and satisfaction (mesosystem) –> level of support on relationship (exosystem) –> dominant culture’s view on relationship (macrosystem)
23
Q
Feminist Theory
A
- sexuality is socially constructed and based on motivations of men
- no uniform theory but want to examine the inequalities of relationships btwn men and women
24
Q
Queer Theory
A
- challenges all notions of gender, sexual orientation, and sexual behaviour as being socially constructed
- highlights that identities and experiences are not fixed and categorical
25
Motivation Theory
- many goals as to why ppl have sex
- self-determined sexual motivation is more positively associated with things involving sex and satisfaction
- autonomous motivations has a positive spillover effect on general well-being and relationship satisfaction
26
Ancient Greece views on masturbation
- was an aid to health and recommended if someone didn't have a sexual partner and needed sexual relief to improve their health (imbalance of humours)
- need for men to masturbate was relegated low status/pitied (satyrs),
- need for women was lightly mocked but over all NBD
27
18th century views on masturbation (onanism)
- the heinous sin of self pollution and was viewed as something pathological with detrimental consequences
- Tissot was a reputable doctor so his word was taken strongly
- talked about dangers of masturbation (loss of semen -= loss of blood, masturbation = using fantasy = overheating of brain)
- prescribed expensive remedies
28
20th century views on masturbation
- Havelock Ellis--> more positive shift; said negative consequences of masturbation only occur when practiced in excess (as most things)
29
History of Dildos
- object shaped like an erect penis used for sexual stimulation
30
History of Vibrators
- device that vibrates, used for sexual stimulation
- originally used as a medical device; Joseph Granville invented the vibratode in the 1880s as a medical device used for men (pain, spinal disease, deafness, erectile problems)
- used on all parts of the body and for all sorts of ailments in people, and was nor originally recommended for clitoral stimulation
- ads were created under the mask of it being used for medical purposes until the 20s when a "blue film" used ir for sexual stimulation
31
Early texts on sex research
- formal texts served instructional, cultural, and religious purposes (e.g. kama sutra)
- in western nations, texts that discussed sexuality were censored and texts encouraging individuals to suppress desires were allowed to circulate
32
Modern texts on sex research
- served instructional purposes until late 19th century
- Richard Von Krafft-Ebing's psychopathia sexualis is the first ext to approach sexuality from modern sexual approach but pathologized many sexual expressions
- Iwan bloch, father of sexology, described natural variations in sexual phenomena as healthy
- early 20th century = rise in sex manuals written by women designed to educate women about sexuality and promote birth control
33
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (1825-189)
- pioneer of modern gay rights movement
- offered first theory of same-sex sexual attraction and viewed it as being inborn, and natural and a healthy expression
- uranism: urnings (male-male), urninds (female-female), uranodinings (both sexes)
34
Carl Westphal (1833-1890)
- published first case history of same-sex sexual attraction
- explained it as a contrary feeling and called it an unhealthy condition
- prompted other psychologists to submit their own cases of the psychological condition
35
Henry Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)
- "studies in the psychological sex"
| - sexual inversion --> natural and inborn (not pathological)
36
Magnus Hirschfeld (1868-1935)
- Founder of modern sexology
- lots of texts on sexology
- coined the term for transvestism in an attempt to explain the difference between the construct of gender identity and sexuality
37
Albert Moll (1862-1935)
- founder of modern sexology
| - theory of sexual response cycle: onset, voluptuous sensation, voluptuous acme, and end of voluptuous sensation
38
Kinsey's interview-based approach (1894-1956)
- self-report
- changed attitudes at the time which thought only sex after marriage, women are uninterested in sex, and certain expressions were abnormal
- was told to teach a class on human sexuality and decided not to approach it from the "hygiene" perspective
- realized there wasn't a lot of research so starting conducting his own
- 300+ open ended questions, coded, judgment free, over 10 000 participants by the end
- "sexual behaviour in the human male" and "sexual behaviour in the human female" that challenged many taboo notions
39
Masters and Johnson's observational approach (1894-1956)
- physiological measures; first systematic large-scale study of sexual response (used empirical approach)
- sex is healthy and sexual pleasures are socially acceptable
- used instrument to measure physiological changes and observed changes and came up w the 4 stages of sexual response
40
External female genitals (vulva)(7)
- consist of the mons pubis, clitoris, labia majora, labia minora, vulvar vestibule, and urethral and vaginal openings
41
Mons pubis
- rounded fatty pad of tissue that covers the pubic symphysis and is sensitive to touch
- becomes covered in hair during puberty
42
3 Reasons why we have pubic hair
- plays role in sexual communication through pheromonal signalling
- provides protective padding during the friction of intercourse
- visually signals maturity
- *often removed to increase attractiveness and cleanliness, increase sensitivity, make it easier to locate
43
Parts and role of the clitoris
- sensitive organs similar to the glans of the penis
- stimulation is most common way that women achieve arousal and orgasm during masturbation --> only function is sexual pleasure
- has the glans and shaft found below the pubic symphysis and covered by clitoral hood (prepuce) (external)
- has 2 internally located cura that project inward from each side of the shaft
- glans is small knob of smooth tissue that consists of the corpora cavernosa which extend back and along the sides of the vagina and fill w blood during arousal, and the vestibular bulbs that lie on either side of the vagina near the opening and are composed of erectile tissue and fill w blood during arousal
44
The labia majora
- "outer lips" that are pads of fatty tossue and protect sensitive internal structures of the vulva
- extend downward from the mons pubis out to each side of the vulva and outer surfaces are covered in hair
- richly supplied with nerve endings that are important for sexual stimulation and arousal
45
The labia minora
- "inner lips"; hairless folds of skin located btwn majora and extend upward and forward toward the clitoris to ofrom the prepuce and meet posterior to vaginal opening in the fourchette
- contain oil glands, sweat glands, blood vessels, and nerve endings important for sexual stimulation and arousal
- vary in size and shape and often labiaplasties are done to make minora more pump/symmetrical/smaller
46
The vulvar vestibule
- teardrop-shaped area of vulva inside minora
- within it lie the vaginal hood and the urethral openings
- contain nerve endings, and blood vessels and erogenous zones which are sensitive to pleasurable stimulation
- sometimes too sensitive that touch is painful and unpleasant (provoked vestibulodynia)
47
The urethral opening
- lies halfway between the clitoris and vaginal opening within the vestibule
- tube that transports urine collected in the bladder to where it is expelled from the body, and is not highly sensitive to touch
48
The vaginal opening
- highly sensitive region located in the posterior area of the vulvar vestibule below the urethral opening
49
The hymen
- thin membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening and is believed to protect the vaginal tissues early in life
- different configurations of hymenal integrity (normally some degree of opening) so sometimes breaks before sex/ sometimes doesn't rupture during first intercourse
50
Internal female genitals (8)
- consists of the vagina, bartholin glands, vestibular bulbs, skene's glands, cervix and uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes
51
The vagina
- A canal that starts at the vaginal opening and extends into the body
- oriented upward and tilts slightly backward toward the sacrum and connects with the cervix
52
The three layers of the vagina
- outermost: vaginal mucosa: rugae (ridged walls) that are soft and moist and release secretions to maintain health, slightly acidic chemical balance and secrete lubricant during sexual stimulation resulting from vasocongestion (increases alkalinity to make more hospitable to sperm, increase sexual pleasure, and exudes scent that can be erotic stimulus)
- middle: muscular and is most prominent in lower third (closest to opening); tightens during arousal and contracts rapidly and rhythmically during orgasm
- deepest: fibrous tissue which resists expansion of vagina and keeps vagina in place w pelvis
53
The Bartholin Glands
- pair of glands that lie just inside the labia minora on left and right side of vagina
- role is largely unknown but small secretion just before orgams might contribute to lubrication
54
The Skene's Glands
- located on the front wall of vaginal close to lower end of urethra and their ducts empty into urethra
- anatomy and secretions might be analogous to prostate gland and believed to contribute to sensitivity of G-spot
55
The G-spot
- Grafenberg spot which is a highly sensitive area on the anterior vaginal wall about cm form the opening
- contains skene's glands and ducts, vaginal and urethral tissues and roots of clitoris lie just outside (controversial bc might just be stimulating clitoris and other sensitive
tissue)
- stimulation of area can be highly pleasurable leading to arousal, orgasm and even ejaculation (through urethra)
- not everyone has g-spot, not everyone ejaculates or squirts, not everyone that has it finds it pleasurable
56
The cervix
- lower third of uterus located at the top of vagina and contains mucus secreting glands
- sperm travel from vagina and into uterus through os (opening at centre of cervix) and into the upper two thirds of uterus (fundus)
- cervical dysplasia is first warning sign of cervical cancer --> screening w pap test
57
The uterus
- function is to hold and nourish developing fetus during pregnancy
- normally tilted upward (anteflexed), but tipped back towards the spine (retroflexed) in some people
58
The layers of the uterus
- innermost: endometrium- richly supplied with hormone-secreting glands and blood vessels
- middle: myometrium- muscular and elasticity allows for stretching needed to accommodate fetus as it grows and contracts during labor to expel fetus
- outermost: perimetrium- thin smooth membrane continuous within the abdominal and pelvic activity during regular functions
59
The ovaries
- two located on either side of the of uterus and are endocrine glands that produce estrogens and progestins
- estrogen influence development of sexual characteristics and w progesterone also regulate menstrual cycle
progesterone plays important role in preparing uterine lining for fetus
60
Fallopian Tubes
- transport ova from ovaries to uterus
- 10 cm tubes that are located on either side of pelvic cavity
- egg moves down tubes toward ovaries via cilia and peristaltic contractions
- part of tube closest to ovaries is infundibulum where fertilization occurs; has fimbrae which extend toward ovaries and draw egg from ovary to tube
61
External male genitals (2)
- consists of the penis, and scrotum (testes located inside the scrotum)
62
3 parts of the penis
- Roots: extend internally, and attach to the bars of the pubic bone (like clitoris)
- Shaft: main external part that is hairless and covered w loose skin when flaccid; starts at base of penis and ends at coronal ridge
- Glans: acorn-shaped enlarged end that is the most sensitive to to stimulation; partially/fully covered by the foreskin in individuals who haven't been circumcised
63
Layers inside the penis
- corpora cavernosa: 2 large cylindrical spongy bodies that lie side-by-side on the upper part of he shaft and continue inward as the crura of the penis anchored to the pubic bone
- corpus spongiosum: lies under the pair of cavernosa and runs the length of penis (urethra in middle) and expands at the end of the penis to form the glans
- have irregular spaces that are richly supplied w vessels and nerves that fill up w blood when aroused
- cavernous body wrapped in fibrous sleeve that becomes taut when filled w blood making penis stiff and firm, but spongiosum doesn't and remains soft; if both got hard then pressure would be too great for semen to escape
64
Penis size
- symbolically an erect penis was denoted w fertility, intelligence, power, strength so it ppl think bigger = better
- more men believe their penis is smaller than larger but most are average
- grower vs shower
65
Angle of the Dangle
- erect penis is wider, firmer, and stiffer to make penetration possible
- full erection is on average 10 degrees above horizontal but this can range 0-40 degrees
- root is typically more horizontal
- reduced angle is sign of mild erectile dysfunction
66
The scrotum
- loose pouch of skin that contains the testes and hangs under the base of the penis
- outer layer of skin + inner layer of dartos muscle (involuntary)
- dartos muscle responds to temp and contracts if testes are cold and causes them to rise
67
Male internal genitals (7)
- consists of testes, seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and cowper's glands
68
The testes
- reproductive glands that secrete androgens and produce sperm
- left hands lower than right
- spermatic cord suspends each testis in the scrotum and contains the vas deferens, blood vessels, and nerves
- cremaster muscle bring testes closer to or further from body in response to temp (testes need to be at constant lower temp than body temp)
69
Development of testes
- developed in fetus abdominal cavity and descend to scrotum
- drag their blood supply and nerves as well as vas deferens w them
- when guys get hit in testes they feel it in the abdomen
70
castration
- used to be performed before puberty so secondary sexual characteristics were not formed and they were taller and had dramatic stage presence and voice
- usually now done as chemical castration (hormonal therapy) by preventing testosterone for those w prostate cancer
71
Seminiferous tubules
- long, thin, coiled tubes packed into testes
- spermatogenesis and sperm storage
- located btwn testes and produce androgens which are secreted into blood
72
Epididymis
- C-shaped structure covering part of each testes
- narrow tightly coiled tube w head, body, and tail
- immature sperm produced in seminiferous and move to epididymis where they mature and are stored again
73
Vas Deferens
- sperm from epididymis is drained into vas deferens and carried through the lower abdominal wall to the prostate
- vas deferens deliver sperm directly into urethra where it passes through the prostate
- sperm are transported by cilia and muscle contraction of the wall of the epididymis and vas deferens
- upon ejaculation sperm mixes w fluids of seminal vesicles and prostate --> sperm only independent after ejaculation
74
The seminal vesicles
- two tubular glands next to prostate near the ends of the vas deferens hat secrete sugary, alkaline fluid that constitutes up to 70% of the ejaculate
75
The Prostate gland
- lies directly below bladder and consists of glandular tissue surrounded by muscle
- secretes thin alkaline fluid that neut acid vagina to and penile urethra to make it safe for sperm
- vagina is inhospitable if not for semen
76
Prostate cancer
- most common malignancy in males (after age of 40, but most diagnosed around 60)
- regular screening if family history
- prostatectomy if caught early, if not androgen deprivation therapy, but lots of adverse effects
77
Semen and sperm
- semen made up of mostly fluid from seminal vesicles and prostate gland, and only 3 mL of sperm (1%) but contains 200-500 mill sperm
78
The science of Sperm
- proteins secreted by seminal vesicles are semenogelins which form gel that immobilize sperm
- PSA is secreted by prostate gland and breaks down other proteins and liquifies the semen to allow sperm to flow freely
- first sperm is propelled in the right direaction as a coagulative bolus of semen so it can get closer to target, and once close enough the ejaculate will liquify and sperm will break free in search of ovum
- sperm only fertilize egg after capacitation
79
Cowper's glands
- aka bulbourethral glands, 2 pea-sized structures that like on either side of urethra and below the prostate, and their ducts empty into the urethra
- secrete clear, slippery, alkaline pre-ejaculate that is believed to counteract the acidity of urethra to prepare it for seminal fluid
- can contain healthy sperm so pullout method is not contraception!!!!!!!
80
Penile lengthening procedures
- non of them work
- manual squeezing (jelqing) can result in scarring
- stretching w weights can cause injury
- vacuum pumps can lead to bruising and less firm erection over time (good for erectile dysfunction)
- pills and lotions
- fat injections are short-term (frequent injections), and can result in bumpy penis
- severing suspensory ligament can affect angle of dangle and interfere w penetrative sex
- penile enlargement surgery is expensive, comes w risks, and only for half an inch
81
Circumcision
- removal of foreskin
- most common in north and west africa and middle east
- not common in europe, southern africa, asia, honduras
- canada: no (30), USA: yes (60%)
- whether or not one has one is influenced by societal norms, fathers circumcision status (most influential in canada), hygiene purposes, appearance
82
Circumcision issues
- loss of sexual pleasure: removal of sensitive skin = less pleasure, but most ppl have procedure young so they don't notice but if removed later in life, some report less sensitivity
- hardening of exposed glans: no protective covering = change in tissue properties = less pleasure??
- risks from procedure: pain after procedure, emotional trauma in some cases
- ethical/consent: usually performed in infants who can't consent to the procedure
83
Circumcision benefits
- lower rates of infant UTI bc no buildup of urine in foreskin
- prevents/treats phimosis, the painful/difficult retraction of foreskin
- lower rates of penile cancer
- lower rates of STIs and HIV/AIDs
- potentially more hygienic, but if children are educated on how to clean its fine
84
Female breasts (other erogenous zones)
- major erogenous zone
- reductions come w complications, but high satisfaction w augmentations
- most common cancer affecting women, and treatments include radiation or surgery or chemo if metastasized
85
Mechanics of penile-vaginal penetrative sex
- missionary: pressure applied by penis to anterior vaginal walls and clitoris w each hip thrust
- when penis is firm enoguh and angle is good, movements are not just in and out and also upward and downward
- not firm enough/angle not right = risk of slipping out, but reduced movement to prevent slipping = reduced clitoral stimulation
- slight upward movement by male applies pulse of pressure to clitoris
- as male moves, female pubic symphysis acts as fulcrum for penis, and as he moves upward, tip rotates downwards
- suspensory ligament acts as a spring during erection and penetration (resists downward rotation) and helps to provide pulsatile pressure to clit, and prevents slipping out
86
Definition of sexual response cycle
- the sequence of events that occurs when a person becomes sexually aroused and engages in sexually stimulating activities
- based primarily on physiological processes, but psychological, cognitive, emotional and experiential also influence
87
Masters and Johnson made their sexual response cycle based on which two processes?
- vasocongestion: pooling of blood vessels in bodily area; during arousal, dilation of arteries results in an inflow of blood beyond what veins can carry away and area is red, warm, swollen and more sensitive
- mytonia: increased muscle tension (gen and non-gen) that can cause certain areas of the body to experience sudden, perceptible muscle spasms
88
M&J Phase 1: Excitement
- signals beginning of arousal
- mainly vasocongestion resulting in erection and vaginal lubrication
- dartos muscle and cremaster muscle contracts to tighten skin of scrotum and elevate testes respectively
- glans, crura of clitoris, and the vestibular bulbs swell
- majora separates from vaginal opening and minora swells and darkens
- inner two thirds of vagina expands, vaginal walls open, cervix and uterus elevate
- nipple erection (mytonia), breasts swell and enlarge, bp and HR elevation (sex flush)
89
M&J Phase 2: Plateau
- dramatic surge of sexual tension
- most processes that have occurred during excitement will increase until they peak at orgasm
- external part of clitoris might retract under hood, lower third of vagina becomes engorged leading to tightening of this region that increases muscle tension of pelvic floor
90
M&J Phase 3: Orgasm
- brief lasting only a few seconds
- involuntary muscle spasm occur in pevlic flooor and other areas of body, HR and BP reach max
- in males it happens in 2 phases: emmision- internal structures contract resulting in pooling of semen in urethral bulb, and expulsion where semen is expelled via contractions of muscles at base of penis
- in females, lower third of vagina and uterus contract rhythmically, rectal pressure oscillates btwn 8-13x/ sec and no changes in breast and clitoris
91
M&J Phase 4: Resolution
- occurs right after orgasm if no further stim, and system returns to unaroused stage
- HR, BP, sex flush resolve quick, clitoral engorgement and erection take longer
- without orgasm, resolution will take longer
92
Disabilities in sexual resposne
- can happen at all aspects
| - arousal and function can be impaired in those w neurological conditions
93
Kaplans 3 stage sexual response cycle model
- desire, excitement, orgasm
| - includes desire as first stage, acknowledging the importance of psychological processes and sexual response
94
Basson's Model of female sexual response
- worked w women w low sexual desire
- accounts for the fact that although many women experience spontaneous sexual desire, and seek to be sexual in response to the desire, others may engage for sexually neutral, or non-sexual reasons like emotional closeness
- once sexual sensation builds and if other psychological, relational, and environmental cues are satisfactory, sexual desire may increase
- elevated desire may then play a role in continuing the activity to satisfy the desire
- LOOK AT PIC
95
age-related decreases in sexual response
- arousal takes longer w increasing age, and intensity of all aspects is dampened (sometimes even painful)
- amount of lubrication in women is reduced, walls more rigid, less vasocongestion, so shorter resolution
- erections take longer to acquire, more stimulation required, less firm bc less testosterone
96
Sex differences in refractory period and multiple orgasms
- men experience refractory lasting from minutes to days
- male orgasms can be sporadic (minutes btwn) or condensed (seconds to minutes btwn)
- sometimes men w out prostate dont have refractory period
- females don't have refractory, but most women experience post-orgasmic hypersensitivity of clitoris preventing motivation for further stimulation
- multiple orgasms might be greater during masturbation and after first, less stimulation is required
97
Sex differences in variability of orgasmic experience
- frequency of orgasm increases from 5 to 100% btwn ages of 10-15 in men, and gradual from women over 5 years from the age of 15 and doesnt exceed 90%
- most women don't regularly experience orgasm via intercourse and some never do but almost 100 experience via masturbation
- found that sexual arousal and desire decrease more quickly in men and same as decrease in genital temp potentially explaining difference in experience of multiple orgasms
98
Sex differences in brain areas active during sexual arousal and orgasm
- regardless of gender and sexual orientation, there is a similar pattern of activation in cortical and subcortical areas
99
Qualitative vs quantitative approaches to research
- qualitative: accounts for subjective aspects of sexuality that are difficult to measure (emotions, beliefs) and focuses on participant (no beliefs of researcher imposed) --> good for exploration and discovery, and useful at beginning of research
- Quantitative: allow researcher to objectively identify and measure behaviour and physical processes that occur during sexual activity --> good for identifying causing and effect and classifying certain types of sexual behaviour
100
Descriptive Designs
- useful for summarizing patterns of sexual attitudes and behaviours
- useful for generating ideas for future research
- direct observation, interview, case study, content analysis
101
Direct observation
- most basic and non-intrusive
- involves monitoring sexual or relational behaviour and most often used in qualitative research
- researchers don't intrude their ideas to preserve ecological validity (generalizability to real setting)
- use recording devices to prevent memory bias; be careful of interpretation bias
- limitation: most sexual activity occurs in private setting, and participants may not behave naturally if being watched
102
Interview
- provide detailed report of individual's experiences of sexuality, sexual histories, and attitudes that shape the expectation of sexual histories
- benefit: generate lots of data
- used in clinical setting to help formulate subclinical or psychiatric diagnosis
- main weakness is memory bias and responder bias (participants feel they
103
Case study
- in-depth, descriptive, longitudinal examination of a single individual, even, or group of interest using interviews, observations, questionnaires, and/or info from experiments
- illustrate common sexual experience or offer insight to poorly understood aspect of sexuality that might be unethical to study with experiments
- limitations: subject to interpretation (theoretical) bias, poor generalizability, lack of control group and experimental design = can't determine cause and effect
104
Content Analysis
- allows researchers to systematically sort through info collected from research in the form of observational notes, interview transcripts, participant's personal narratives, audio/video recordings
- used qualitatively to uncover themes/ patterns in new ways to describe certain phenomena
- used quantitatively to sort data into predetermined categories
105
Correlational Studies
- allows researchers to see the relationship btwn variables, but major limitation is cause-and-effect can't be determined
- survey, archival data-mining
106
Survey
- standardized or unstandardized questionnaires about sexual beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour
- designed to tap into highly specific sexual constructs (desire, efficacy, guilt)
- validity and reliability depend on how well questions are worded
- limitation: susceptible to memory bias, responder bias, and demand characteristics
107
Archival data-mining
- window into past
- incorporate quantitative info and qualitative info to uncover trends in data across time, evaluate relationship btwn sexual health and demographic variables, and positive outcomes of a given treatment
- benefit: cost effective and lack of interference w how data was collected
- drawback: records may be incomplete/inconsistent and can only provide info about past occurrences
108
Experimental research designs
- allows researchers to manipulate an experimental variable, control for confounding variables, and sue standardized procedures to expose each participant to the same conditions
- cause-and-effect can be determined
- true experiments are defined by the use of random assignment, but this is not always ethical
- limitation: for both experimental designs is demand characteristics interfering w participant behaviour
109
Quasi-experimental research designs
- used by many sex researchers bc of difficulties w true experiments
- limitation: no random assignment = no accounting for confounding variables
- used to study many pre-existing participant characteristics
110
Psychophysiological approaches to sex research
- popular in contemporary sex research
- allows researchers to relate an individual's subjective experiments of feeling turned on to a measurable physiological response
- examine diff factors that might impact sexual arousal
- primarily methods hat directly or indirectly measure vasocongestion and its effects
111
Vaginal photoplethysmography (VPP)
- tampon-shaped probe that emits and detects IR light; the more light reflected back from vaginal wall = more blood flow = more arousal
- pro: only takes seconds to show changes in blood, can be used in private
- con: can be biased by body movements, no baseline bloodflow, doesn't measure up with self-reported levels of subjective arousal
112
Labial thermistor
- sensor that attaches to surface of labia and detects surface temp; increase in temp = increase in blood flow = increased arousal
- pro: reproducible, temp correlates w self-reports of arousal, can be used during menstruation
- con: takes minutes to show temp changes, long time to return to base temp after arousal, can be affected by room temp
113
vaginal lubrication
- litmus-test strip placed in vaginal entrance after sexual stimuli and the length of the colour change provides a measure of lubrication amount
- pro: discriminate btwn sexual and non-sexual stimuli, correlate w subjective sexual arousal, non-invasive, and quick
- con: can't provide reliable indications of low-level sexual arousal or quick initial responses to sexual stimuli, litmus strip might continue to change colours from when test is taken to when results are interpreted
114
Thermographic cameras (thermography)
- heat-sensing camera that remotely records temp change; increase in temp = increase in blood flow = increase in arousal
- pro: temp can be compared, non-invasive (no physical contact w device so good for those w sexual dysfunction)
- con: take mins to show temp changes, can't evaluate rapid changes in sexual arousal
115
Doppler ultrasonogrpahy
- sound waves that interact w tissue and blood bounced back to transducer, and movement of blood in and around clitoris or penis changes frequency
- more direct measure of blood flow than VPP and in theory should provide superior measures of sexual arousal but didn't match up w self-reports for clitoris
- pro: intermediate info about properties of genital blood flow, provides info about anatomy
- con: differences in placement of level of experience of tester is confounding variable, drugs that increase blood flow may be needed
116
Laser Doppler Imaging (LDI)
- measures superficial blood flow in the external genitals w non-contact laser beam and is a direct measure of sexual arousal
- pro: direct measure, colour photograph improves ID of structures in blood flow map
- con: can be biased by body movements, takes mins to show changes in blood flow, measurement can be affected by presence of pubic hair
117
Penile volume plethysmography
- penis inserted into container and as indv is aroused and penis fills w blood and increases in size, the amount of free space in the container decreases
- pro: reliable - shows changes in size and girth
- con: doesn't provide info on firmness
119
Penile strain gauge
- ring placed around shaft, and as blood flow increases, penis circumference increases and so ring expands
- pro: reliable, provides info on girth of penis
- con: no info about firmness, movement and position may affect measurements
120
penile photoplethysmography
- light reflected back form penile dorsal artery to device shows indirect measure of blood flow (more reflected = more blood = more arousal)
- pros: changes are measurable after seconds
- con: onset of erection may be associated w short periods of reduced blood flow
120
Quantitative sensory testing (QST)
- requires that individual makes perceptual judgments on whether a stimulus is detectable, whether it is more or less intense than previous sensation and sometimes when sensation is painful
- General QST provides information about how the body processes sensations at rest and during sexually aroused state which can vary based on the type of stimulus in the characteristics of the examined skin
- Also been used clinically in the assessment of different types of sexual problems
121
Brain imaging methods for psychophysiological sex research (fMRI)
- fMRI indirectly detects changes in blood flow associated with neural activity and used to assess cognitive, emotional, and sensory processes associated w sexual arousal, orgasm, genito-pelvic pain, and even romantic love
- used to correlate a stimulus w a response (cerebral blood flow) but issues arise
PSYC 333
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