1
Q
What are the three intertwining factors that make up the developmental process?
A
1) biological processes
2) cognitive processes
3) socioemotional processes
2
Q
What are the 7 different kinds of developmental periods (times)?
A
1) prenatal (conception to birth)
2) infancy (birth to 18-24 months)
3) Childhood (24 months - 11 years)
4) Adolescence ( 10-12 – 18/22 years)
5) Early Adulthood ( 20-30’s)
6) Middle Adulthood (40-60)
7) Late adulthood ( 60 – X )
3
Q
what are the characteristics of the prenatal period?
A
- tremendous growth!
- single cell into a complete organism
- before birth
4
Q
what are the characteristics of infancy?
-psychological activities include:
A
- very dependant on caregiver
- psychological activities include:
- learning language
- symbolic thought
- coordination
5
Q
What are the characteristics of childhood?
A
Early childhood (up until the age of 5 or 6) children learn to become more self sufficient, and care for themselves
-the development of school readiness skills, and social skills
- middle / late childhood:
- kids master basic skills such as:
- reading
- writing
- arithmetic
Kids are also exposed to the world outside of their family and prevailing culture.
6
Q
What are the characteristics of Adolescence?
A
- rapid physical changes (height, weight, body contour, sexual characteristics)
- pursuit of independence and identity
- more logical thought - abstract / idealistic
- more time spent outside the family
- increased risk taking
7
Q
What are the characteristics of early adulthood?
A
- establish personal / economic independence
- become proficient in career, select a partner, and start a family
8
Q
what are the characteristics of middle adulthood?
A
- expanding personal/ social involvement and responsibility
- assisting next generation to become competent, mature individuals
- achieving / maintaining career satisfaction
9
Q
What are the characteristics of late adulthood?
A
- life review
- retirement
- adjusting to new social roles involving decreasing strength and health
10
Q
What are the four TYPES of age when it comes to the nature of development?
A
1) chronological age - years since birth
2) biological age - age in terms of biological health: functional capacities of vital organs.
3) psychological age - adaptive capacities compared with those of the same chronological age
4) social age - connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt
11
Q
What are the three PATTERNS of aging? and how are they characterized?
A
1) NORMAL - (most individuals)
- psychological function peaks in early middle age
- relatively stable until the late fifties to early sixties
- modest decline through the early 80’s
- marked decline can occur as individuals near death
2) PATHOLOGICAL
- early old age
- may have mild cognitive impairment
- develop Alzheimers or have chronic dease that effects functioning.
- (being old for 50)
3) SUCCESSFUL
- physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer
- decline later in old age than is the case for most people
- ( being a young 70)
12
Q
Developmental issues:
Describe what Nature and Nurture means
A
it refers to the extent to which development is influenced by nature and nurture
Nature - the organisms biological inheritance (DNA, genetics, ect)
Nurture - environmental factors that effect development.
13
Q
Developmental issues:
describe ‘Stability and change’
A
the degree to which early traits/ characteristics persist or change over time.
e.i. shyness, agression, ect.
14
Q
Developmental issues:
what is meant by ‘continuity and discontinuity’?
A
the degree to which development involves gradual change (nurture) versus distinct and more abrupt changes (nature)
example: does a a child learn to think abstractly over time, or once they reach a particular age does their cognitive ability change rapidly?
“did you slowly become who you are, or were there rapid changes in your life that changed you”.
15
Q
what are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
A
1) conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
2) collect research information (data)
3) analyze the data
4) draw conclusions
5) replication
16
Q
what is a theory?
A
is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas used to explain a phenomena and make preditcitons
17
Q
what is a hypothesis?
A
specific assertions and predictions that can be tested
18
Q
Theory’s of development:
describe the psychoanalytic theory.
who preposed this?
A
describes development primarily in terms of UNCONSCIOUS processes and are heavily influenced by emotion.
This is Freud’s theory.
- behaviour is merely a surface characteristic
- true understanding of development request analysis of symbolic meanings of behaviour and the deep inner workings of the mind
- development related to pleasure and SEXUAL IMPULSES
19
Q
describe Eriksons Theory
A
PsychoSocial Theory
- human’s develop in psychosocial stages
- motivation is social
- change occurs diffring lifespan.
ERIKSON’S STAGES:
infancy = trust vs mistrust
toddlerhood = autonomy vs shame and doubt
preschool = initiative vs guilt
elementary school = competence vs inferiority
adolescence = identity vs role confusion
young adulthood = intimacy vs isolation
middle adulthood = generatively vs stagnation
late adulthood = integrity vs despair
20
Q
Describe Piaget’s theory of development
A
Cognitive Theory of development
- children construct personal understandings (schemas)
- engaged in personal cognitive development
- age related stages with distinct thinking/ understanding
- child’s cognition is qualitatively different in each stage.
21
Q
What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
A
1) sensorimotor stage (0-2)
2) preoperational stage (2-7)
3) concrete operational stage (7-11)
4) formal operational stage (11-adult)
22
Q
describe Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
A
0-2
infant learns world through coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.
learning:
object permanence + stranger anxiety
23
Q
describe Piaget’s pre operational stage
A
2-7
child begins to represent the world with images.
child develops symbolic thinking.
milestones:
- pretend play
- egocentricism
limitation:
conservation
24
Q
describe Piaget’s concrete operational stage
A
7-11 years old
- the child can now reason logically about concrete evens and classify objects into different sets
milestones:
- mathematic thinking
- conservation
limitation:
- abstract thinking
25
Describe Piaget's formal operational stage
from 11 years of age through adulthood
the adolescent can reason in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways
milestones
- abstract knowledge
- complex moral understanding
26
What is Vgotsky's theory of development?
Sociocultural Cognitive Theory.
- culture and social interactions guide cognitive development
- inseparable from social / cultural activities
- social interactions with more skilled and peers in indispensable to their cognitive development
- adults provide "scaffolding" to assist children in their cognitive development
27
Theories of development:
Information processing theory
what's it about?
- individuals manipulate information, monitor it and strategize about it
- cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded into our memory.
- its about how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use and remember information.
- development is not stage-line
- individuals develop gradually increasing capacity for processing information, allowing them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills
28
what is the BEHAVIOURAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE theory?
when development results from behaviours learned through interactions with surroundings
29
describe Bandura's Theroy
Theory of Social Cognitive Development
- environment, bevaiour and personal/ cognitive factors are the key factors in development
- cognitive processes are linked to environmental behaviour
- you partially create your own personality by thinking about and choosing how you will react in your environment
emphasizes the critical role of self-beliefs in human cognition, motivation, and behavior.
30
What is behaviourism?
behavioural & social cognitive theory
cares about behaviour because it can be measured.
development is observable behaviour learned through experiences with environment
31
What is operant conditioning?
Who theorized it?
Skinner
behaviour consequences (rewards or punishments) cause changes in the probability of behaviour
increases or decreases behaviour based on rewards or punishments.
32
What is the Ethological Theory of development?
- study of the behaviour of animals in their natural habitat
- stresses that behaviour is strongly influenced by biology (similar to evolutionary psych)
- characterized by critical or sensitive periods
- specific time frames during which presence or absence of certain experiences have a long lasting influence on individuals
33
What is Bronfenbrenner's theory of development?
Bioecolocial theory...
environmental systems influence development through five systems:
1) microsystem
2) mesosystem
3) exosystem
4) macrosystem
5) chronosystem
34
What is an ecological theory of development?
emphasizes environmental factors.
This theory looks at a child's development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment
Bronfenbenner
35
What is the microsystem?
| Bronfenbenner
a child's immediate surroundings
setting in which the individual lives and their genetic makeup
e.g. the child's family, school, peers, and neighborhood. Microsystems also include sports and activities, such as karate class or Girl Scouts
most direct interactions with social agents take place within the microsystem
individual is a passive recipient of experiences, but helps with the construct of the setting
36
What is a Mesosystem?
| Bronfenbenner
The mesosystem is the interlinked system of microsystems in which a person participates—for example, linkages between family and school.
e. g. parent teacher conference
ex. children whose parents have rejected or neglected them may have difficulty developing positive relationships with other adults (such as teachers)
37
what is the exosystem?
| Bronfenbenner
exosystem refers to the outside world that the developing person is not directly involved in, but influences them in some way.
exo = outside
system
(e.g. home experiences may be influenced by a parents work experiences)
38
What is a macrosystem?
| Bronfenbenner
the culture than an individual is surrounded by
| cultural beliefs, behaviours, ect.
39
What is a Chronosystem?
| Bronfenbenner
The chronosystem considers how and when major events occur and how the timing of these events can influence a person's life. These major events could be within the person's life itself or external such as natural disasters, pandemics, or global civil rights protests.
40
What is the Humanistic theory of development
who was it proposed by
Maslow and Rogers
- reaction to behaviouristic and psychoanalytic approach
- holistic approach
- self improvement / self help
the idea of CONGRUENCY - Roggers thought the closer we are to our "ideal self", the less incongruence we have and the better we feel.
Also addresses a hierarchy of needs (Maslow). Lower order needs must be met before upper needs..
e.g. you must have a safe place to sleep before you can work on yourself
PHYSIOLOGICAL. NEEDS - fundamental for survival. (food, water, ect)
HOMEOSTAIS - body's internal monitor altering us to basic needs.
?????
41
pWhat is Congruency
Roggers thought the closer we are to our "ideal self", the less incongruence we have and the better we feel
42
What is the hierarchy of needs pyramid?
Maslow, humanistic perspective
Bottom level: Physiological needs (food + drink)
Safety needs: security + psychological safety
belongingness and love needs : affiliation, acceptance, affection
Esteem needs (lower): praise from others
esteem needs (higher): self respect
Cognitive needs: knowledge, understanding
Aesthetic needs: beauty, symmetry
Top of pyramid = SELF ACTUALIZATION
(the lower half of the pyramid is a deficiency of needs.)
(higher on the pyramid is the needs that need to be met for growth )
43
What is positive psychology
who developed it?
Selingman and Csikszentmihalyi
- focuses on alternative methods of obtaining health.
- PERMA model (acronym for the five elements essential to wellbeing):
1) Positive emotions
2) Engagement
3) Relationships
4) Meaning
5) Accomplishment / Achievement
Penis Enlargements Recall Male Attention
44
What is Evolutionary Psychology?
biological approach to studying human behaviour
uses Charles Darwins theory of natural selection to explain how humans have evolved over time.
emphasizes the importance of adaption, reproduction, and survival of the fittest.
e.g. strong men would be considered attractive mates because they would protect the family, thus they reproduce and pass those characteristics onto their offspring.
45
What are three propositions made by evolutionary psychologist?
1) humans have an extended childhood compared to other animals.
- this allows the development of a larger brain
- allows gained life experience
- learn the complexities of human society
- time to learn and survive.
2) evolved "domain specific" psychological mechanisms for specific needs.
> mind is not one-size-fits-all.
> mind evolved in as "specialized modules" responding to historically and culturally repeated situations
3) evolved "mechanisms" which do not always adapt quickly or well.
> e.g. overeating... no longer are hunters expending energy to find foods.
46
What are some criticisms of evolutionary psychology?
- hindsight bias.
- "one sided evolutionism" (social behaviour is a product of biological characteristics).
> should adopt a more bidirectional view where the environment and biological conditions affect each other.
- evolution gives bodily structure and influences biology.... not behaviour.
47
What are Genes?
- short segments of DNA (hereditary information) that directs cells to reproduce and manufacture proteins.
- genes make proteins.
- genetic traits are retained in our DNA to be transmitted to new generations.
- DNA is inherited from all species that came before humans as well as the human "genetic code" inherited from parents.
48
What is the human genetic code?
prevents human fertilized eggs from become anything other than human.
99% of human genomes are identical. what makes us unique from each other is founding the 1%
49
What are chromosomes?
thread like structures made of up DNA
inherit 23 chromosomes from mother
and 23 chromosomes from father.
the nucleus of each human cell contains 46 chromosomes.
49
Each of your cells contains all of your genetic information.
people are made up of trillions of cells.
yea yea
50
What is DNA?
DNA is a complex molecule that has a double-helix shape. like a spiral staircase. and contains genetic information.
51
there are about 20,700 genes in the human body.
!
52
What is Mitosis?
the process of cell replication
- cell's nucleus (including chromosomes) duplicate itself and divides
- two new cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes.
53
What is Meiosis?
only forms egg and sperm cells... collectively called gametes.
- a cell of the testes or ovaries duplicates
(1 cell becomes 2 cells)
- it then divides and both of the divided cells divide again
(2 cells becomes 4 cells)
- each of the four cells has 23 chromosomes (half of the genetic material of the parent)
54
How does Fertilization happen?
- egg and sperm cells fuse to create a single cell called a ZYGOTE
- egg / sperm each contribute 23 unpaired chromosomes to form a set of 23 paired chromosomes.
- chromosomes are NOT exact copies of parental DNA, which increases genetic variability and most characteristics on which natural selection can operate.
55
What is a Genotype?
includes totality of individual genetic material including susceptibility genes and longevity genes.
a genotype is an individuals collection of genes.
56
What is a phenotype?
OBSERVABLE CHARACTERISTICS including physical characteristics (height, weight, hair color,)
and PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS (such as personality and intelligence)
57
Ghat are the 3 genetic principles?
1) THERE ARE DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES.
- - one gene characteristic in a chromosome will dominate, passing its code on while the other is recessive. most mutant genes are recessive.
2) THERE ARE SEX LINKED GENES
- women have two X genes in they pair. if only one X gene mutates there is still a backup copy. men have only 1 Y and 1 X gene.
3) POLYGENETIC INHERITANCE
-inhereted characteristics are mostly determined by the interaction of different genes from ancestors and said to be polygenically determined.
"the genome is not static"
58
What is behaviour genetics?
- studies the influence of HEREDITY and ENVIRONMENT on what makes people so DIFFERENT
- environmental influences mental and physical can also change the functioning of genes we inherit at birth.
59
Heredity and environment correlations
- theorized by Scarr
1 PASSIVE GENOTYPE - ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS
- biological parents provide an environment which transfers their interests an inclinations to the child.
2) EVOCATIVE GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - child's characteristics elect certain types of environments (e.g. happy kids get more stimulation)
3) ACTIVE (NICHE-PICKING) GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS - child seeks environment that they find comparable and stimulating
Niche Picking = refers to finding an environment that is suited to one's abilities often related to a genotype
60
What is Epigenetics?
study of changes in organisms caused by modification of GENE EXPRESSION rather than alteration of the genetic code itself.
- heredity/environment contributions are not additive
- genes may produce proteins during lifespan and in many environments affecting life trajectory
- Gene x Environment (G x E) interactions.
61
What is Conception?
- occurs at fertilization
- single spirm cell unites with an ovum (egg) in a female's Fallopian tube
- during three trimesters of pregnancy, genetic code directs a series of changes in the fertilized egg.
62
What are the three trimesters of pregnancy?
1. germinal
2. embryonic
3. fetal
63
What is the Germinal trimester of pregnancy?
conception to 4 weeks.
- less than 0.25cm
- spinal cord, nervous system, lungs, gastrointestinal system, heart
- amniotic sac envelops preliminary tissue of an entire body
- called a ZYGOTE
64
What is the Embryonic trimester of pregnancy?
- 16 weeks
- approximately 14cm
- 112g in weight
- strong heartbeat
- thin, transparent skin
- downy hair (lanugo) covers body
- fingernails and toenails forming
- coordinated movements
65
What is the Fetal trimester of pregnancy?
-28 weeks
- 36-43cm
- 1,100 - 1,400g weight
- adding body fat
- very active
- rudimentary breathing
66
what are the four phases of the prenatal brain in development?
1. formation of the neural tube
2. neurogenesis
3. neural migration
4. neural connectivity
67
What are hazards to prenatal development?
- Drugs/ Alcohol / Nicotine
- Environmental Hazards
- Maternal diseases
- Diet / Nutrition
- Maternal age
- Emotions / stress
68
What are the 3 stages of birth?
1. uterine contrations - cervix dilates
2. head moves through cervix and birth canal
3. afterbirth - placenta emerges
69
What are the two patterns of growth development (physical)
1. Cephalocaudal pattern. = head (cephalo) to tail (caudal)
| 2. Proximodistal pattern = centre outwards
70
what is the cephalocaudal pattern of growth?
means from head to tail
- head is often very large in newborn babies
- physcial growth and feature differentiation work their way from top to bottom
- same pattern occurs within the head area as the top parts of the head (eyes and brain) grow faster than the lower parts
71
what is the proximodistal pattern of growth?
- growth starts at the centre of the body and works towards the extremities.
- infants control their trunk and arms before their hands
72
At birth, an infants brain weights about 25% of adult weight, by by the age of 2 it weights about 75% of adult brain weight.
so there is rapid growth of an infants brain
yea yea
73
What is a neuron?
neurone are a nerve cell that handles information processing.
neurone send electrical / chemical signals, communicating with each other
extending from the neurons cell body are two types of fibres known as axons and dendrites.
74
what are axons?
carry signals away from the cell
75
what are dendrites?
carry signals toward the cell.
76
What is myelination?
process encasing axons in fat cells provides energy to neurone and facilitates communication
77
what is myelin sheath?
fat and protein cells encase many axons; insulating them, helping electrical signals travel faster
78
what is terminal buttons?
they are little balls that are located a the end of axons. They help release chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the synapse (gaps between neurone) allowing information to pass.
79
Expansion of dendritic connections facilitates the spreading of neural pathways during infant development.
* connectivity among neurons increases, creating new neural pathways
* nearly twice as many of these connections are made as will ever be used
* used connections become stronger and survive.
just a note
80
What is pruning?
unused neural pathways get replaced by new ones or disappear.
81
What are the four lobes in the cerebral cortex?
1. frontal lobe
2. occipital lobe
3. temporal lobe
4. parietal lobe
82
What is lateralization?
The tendency to for some neural function or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other
- it starts before birth
- newborns have greater electrical brain activity in the left hemisphere (opposed to the right side) when listening to speech
- may reflect early auditory experience.
83
Before birth, what dictates how the brain establishes basic wiring patterns?
genes
84
After birth, what helps to shape the brains development and neural connections?
Environment
e.g. sights, sounds, smells, touches, language, and eye contact.
85
does an infant who is raised in a deprived environment have reduced brain activity?
yes
86
What is the only reflex that we don't outgrow from infancy?
blinking
87
What are the 9 motor reflexes that infants have?
- Blinking
- Babinkski = fan out toes when stokes the foot.
- Grasping
- Moro (startle) - flings arms out to the side, arches back, throws head back
- Rooting - looking for nipple, warm soft touch on cheek or side of mouth and baby will turn head, open mouth and begin sucking
- stepping - moves feet as if to walk
- sucking - anything touches mouth baby sucks
swimming - infant put face down in water, coordinates swimming movements
tonic neck - forms fist with both hands and turns head to the right (fencers pose)
88
what is the dynamic systems theory?
- a theory of motor development for children that seeks to explain how motor behaviours are assembled for perceiving and acting.
- rolling, sitting and standing happen in a fixer order and within fixed time frames.
- perception and action are coupled
- infants must perceive something that motivates them to act. their perceptions to fine tune their movements.
- motor skills are pathways to infant goals
- new motor skills require practice
e. g. a baby might crawl to reach an exciting new toy
89
What are gross motor skills?
motor skills that involve large-muscle activities such as walking
90
what are fine motor skills
motor skills that involve finely tuned movements, like being able to hold and write with a pen.
91
What are the 7 major milestones in the firs 12 months of a babies life?
- head lift
- rolling
- stooping
- sitting
- standing
- climbing
- usually walking
92
What is sensation?
when information interacts with sensory receptors (senses: eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, skin)
93
what is perception?
the interpretation of senses.
how do you know that your friends voice is your friends voice and not just noise.
how do you know that an apple is an apple and not just sweet fruit.
... perception :)
94
are babies more interested in patterned objects (e.g. faces) Or are more interested in colors?
more interested in faces.
less interested in colour
95
what is intermodal perception?
integrating information from two or more sensory modalities.
96
how can you tell if a baby visually prefers one thing compared to another>
they stare at it
97
what is habituation?
when a baby is bored with the same stimuli, despite being able to tell one from another
decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus
98
what is dishabituation?
recovery of habituated response with new stimulus
so after the baby has had a break from the stimulus they take interest in it again.
99
Do new born babies have good eye sight?
No!
newborn infants have 20/600 vision
100
what is perceptual narrowing?
tuning of the perceptual abilities based on experience
for instance, infants around 6 months can discriminate any phoneme (sound) in the world. but children around 1 year old loose that ability because their environment doesn't require it.
101
When does the auditory experience begin for babies?
the last 2 months of pregnancy (so when they are in the womb still)
102
notes on babies and hearing:
* Infants show a preference for mom’s voice and for stories read to them when still fetus’ in the last months of pregnancy.
* immediately after birth, infants cannot hear soft sounds quite as well; stimulus must be louder for the newborn to hear
lil bbbbbb
103
What is adaption?
involves adjusting to new environmental demands
104
infants and children build ______ to organize knowledge
shemes
105
what two processes contribute to schemes?
1. assimilation = children fit new information into existing schemes. (all 4 legged things are dogs)
2. accommodation = children adjust schemes to account for new information and experiences. (this 4 leg thing is a cat, this 4 leg thing is a dog)
106
What is object permanence?
at what age do children develop this?
what stage of Piaget's theory of development does it belong to?
the understanding that objects continue to exist even then they are not seen.
- 8-9 months old.
- sensorimotor stage
107
what is conditioning?
infant's behaviour is followed by a reward so behaviour is likely to reoccur.
>> skinner >> operant conditioning.
108
define: attention
focusing mental resources on select information, improves cognitive processing on many tasks
- differences in attention during infancy predict cognitive functioning
109
define: imitation
infants learn to imitate very young and can demonstrate deferred imitation at 9 moths.
differed imitation = imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days..
110
Define: memory
retention of information over time; for a few seconds or a lifetime
111
6 month old babies can remember information for 24 hours
20 month old can remember information from 12 months earlier.
fun fact
112
what is implicit memory?
memory without conscious recollection (skills, routine, procedures).
113
what is explicit memory?
conscious memory of facts and experiences
114
what is an autobiographical memory?
memory that is written by you
refers to memory of personal events
115
what is infantile or childhood amnesia?
most adults can remember little, if anything from the first 3 years of their life.
this is because your prefrontal lobes (which are believed to play an important role in storing memories of events), are immature at that age.
at the end of the second year of life, long term memory is more substantial and reliable.
116
what is a concept?
cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people or ideas. without concepts, each object and event would seem unique; you would be unable to make generalizations.
- concepts are a key aspect of a infants cognitive development
- young infants form categories, but the nature of these categories Changs through out infancy.
117
what is perceptual categorization?
categories based on similar perceptual features of an object (size, colour, movement), as well as parts of an object..
the 2 shiny red things would be grouped together, instead of the 2 cubes of different colours.
118
define: language
form of communication (spoken, written, signed) based on a system of symbols
- languages have common characteristics (organizational, infinite generativity) describing how language works
119
define: infinite generativity
the ability to produce endless number of meaningful sentences using finite words and rules.
how we can say and endless number of things, using different words in the English language.
120
infants all over the world follow a similar path in language development... what are the 4 things that this involves?
- crying
- cooing
- babbling
- gestures
*lack of pointing is an indicator of problems in an infant's communication system*
121
notes on babies recognizing language:
birth - app. 6 mo., infants can tell when sounds change regardless of language
•over next 6 mo., infants in monolingual environments improve perceiving sound changes of their “own” language and lose ability to recognize differences unrelated to their own language
yeeee boi
122
what is segmentation?
when its difficult to segment a continuous stream of words into separate sentences.
- babies likely problem solve this by relying on a pattern of phonemes and syllables, extracting potential word forms.
- infants understand words before they can speak them.
123
what is receptive vocabulary?
words that a child understands.
124
what is the difference between receptive vocabulary and spoken vocabulary?
receptive vocabulary is the words that a child understands.
spoken vocabulary is words that a child uses.
- on average infants understand about 50 words t the age of 13 months, but can't say that many until 18 months.
* nouns are the easiest words to learn* -- this is because they are more perceptual than other words
125
what does language development look like for a child that is 18 -24 months old?
- two word utterances to convey meaning.
- child relies heavily on gesture, tone, context
- two word utterances omit many words, but are remarkable sufficient. "Dad play"
- in every language, the Childs first word combinations have economcical quality
- telegraphic speech = use of short, precise words without grammatical markers
126
what are the two brain regions that are involved in language?
what are their functions?
1) Broca's area = area in the left frontal lobe of the brain involved in PRODUCING WORDS
2) Wernicke's area = region of the brain's left hemisphere used in LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
damage to either one of these areas causes APHASIA (the loss / impairment of language processing)
127
what is aphasia?
the loss/ impairment of language processing
128
what are 6 ways to enhance a Childs language development?
1) use child-directed speech
2) talk to your child a lot
3) talk simply and repeat
4) point at, and look at things you are naming
5) be patient and listen
6) use questions to get children to expand their ideas
129
Define emotion... What are the three things that emotions are composed of?
includes a conscious experience, an expressive behaviour and physiological arousal.
almost all classifications designate emotion as either positive or negative.
"self-conscious" emotions seem not to occur until after the first year
130
what are the 4 emotions that babies experience in the first 6 months of life?
joy, sadness, fear, surprise
131
what are two ways that infants express themselves when they are young?
crying and smiling
132
interactions between parents and infants are described as RECIPROCAL l or SYNCHRONOUS (when things are going well)... what does this mean.
parents modify their reactions for the babies,
babies modify their reactions for the parent.
e.g. parent smiles, baby smiles
mama coo's baby coo's
133
there is an emotional bond between infants and their caregivers.. this emerges through coordinated interactions...
what is an example of this
it means that the baby picks up on the mother's emotions.
if momma is happy, then baby is happy..
think of example where the mothers had to do a public presentation, and they received negative feedback. the babies also showed more stress and had increased heart rate
134
What are the three kinds of cry's babies have?
how are they characterized?
1) basic cry - rhythmic pattern, usually consists of a cry followed d by a briefer silence, then a shorter whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry (might mean the baby is hungry).
2) anger cry - variation of the basic cry with more air forced through the vocal cords.
3) pain cry - sudden long, initial loud cry followed by the sound of holding of breath; no preliminary moaning ; may be stimulated by physical pain or by any high -intensity stimulus
135
smiling for babies is a critical social skill and social signal.
yea yea
136
what are the two types of smiling in infants?
how are they characterized?
1) reflexive smile - not from external stimuli; appears in the first month usually in sleep
2) social smile - occurs in response to external stimulus (a face); occurs as early as 2 months of age
137
what can we say about babies and the development of fear?
fear is one of the first emotions that babies develop.
it first appears at about 6 months and peaks at about 18 months.
fear can appear much earlier if the baby is in an abusive household (3 months)
most common expression involves stranger anxiety ( 6 months)
9 months old stranger fear is more intense.
138
what can we say about babies and stranger anxiety?
mostly just notes. don't memorize.
- not all infants show distress with strangers
- baby will show less stranger anxiety if they are in a familiar setting or on the mommas lap.
- strangers behaviour affects Childs perception (are they nice and smiley or grumpy?)
- children are less fearful of children than they are adults.
- how secure the child feels will affect how much fear they display.
139
what is social referencing?
reading emotional cues in others to determine how to act in situations.
baby will look at caregiver to know how to feel about a situation.. if their caregiver is feeling happy, fearful, anxious, ect will affect the babies actions.
140
* Soothing infants helps them regulate their emotions and reduce their level of stress hormones
* Infants affected by fatigue, hunger, time of day, where they are and the people around them
* Infants must learn to adapt to different contexts that require emotion regulation
* New demands appear as the infant becomes older and care givers modify their expectations
on coping.
141
define temperament
an individuals behaviours, emotions, ad characters ways of responding emotionally.
142
what are the 3 types of temperaments a kid might have. what are the characteristics of these temparments?
(chess and Thompson classification_
1) easy child - generally positive mood, establishes routines, adapts easily
2) difficult child - reacts negatively, cries frequently, irregular routines, slow to change
3) slow-to-warm-up-child = low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity mood
143
what is Kagan's concept of behavioural inhibition about?
>> still related to temparment
another way on classifying temparment
main concept is inhibition to the unfamiliar...
reacts to aspects of unfamiliarity with avoidance, distress, or subdued affect beginning around 7 to 9 months old.
inhibited children will no approach new toys, and they stay close to their caregiver.
144
what is Rothbart and Banks concept of Effortful Control?
Effortful control (self regulation) is an important dimension of temparment.
- high effortful control = can keep arousal from getting tooo intense, strategies for self soothing.
- Low effortful control = often unable to control arousal, easily agitated, intensely emotional.
145
** children should not be labeled as having one temperament division.. temparment, just like adults are complex individuals **
a take away message she highlighted around temperament. :)
146
what is a biological influence of temparment?
heredity.
147
what is a way that a child's experience may shape their temparment
children may learn to reduce their fear and inhibition
148
what is a cultural factor that plays into a child's temparment>
different cultures place different value on the expression of temparment.
(some cultures energetic children are encouraged. some cultures shy and polite children are more acceptable)
149
what are three factors that may affect the temparment of a child?
biology, experiences, and culture
150
What does goodness of fit mean?
the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with..
151
tips for parenting children of different temparments:
1. be flexible and respect who that child is
2. structure the child's environment
3. don't label the child as difficult
das all
152
at what age does an infant start being attentive and positive toward their image in a mirror
3 months
153
at what age does an infant develop a sense of self... a self awareness that reflects sense of "me"?
late second year / early 3rd year
154
* Autonomy builds as the infant’s mental and motor abilities develop
* It’s important to let children explore and do on their own so that their sense of self and confidence grows (Erikson)
noteeeey note
155
What is the brooks gun rouge test?
where they put smudge of red on a kid... and if they interacted with the person in the mirror as a separate person, or realized that it was themselves in the mirror.
tested to see if kids had developed a sense of self yet
156
what was the shopping cart test??
where a blanket was attached to a shopping cart. the child stood on the blanket and tried to push the cart. if they realized that they couldn't push the cart because they were standing on the blanket then they were considered self aware.
test for sense of self
157
a babies locomotor and cognitive skills influence & are influenced by social relationships.
6 months babies will show interest in each other..
all that and a bag of chips
158
what age to children start to increase their imitative and reciprocal play?
;18-24 months
159
what does joint attention help an infant accomplish?
helps infants understand that other people have intentions.
understanding others perform intentional and goal directed behaviour is social-cognitive accomplishment. -- usually by the end of the first year
by their first birthday, kids will start direct caretakers to objects that they are interested in.
160
what is learned about kids from the "mmmm, crackers" "eww, broccoli" experiment?
infants understand intentions and desires.
infants looked longer at the thing that seemed more impossible (that a person was enjoying broccoli, after repeating eww broccoli).
linking intentions with emotional expressions develops during the second year of life.
161
What is attachment?
a close emotional bond between two people
162
what 3 people developed theory's about attatchment>
> freud -- thought that infants become attached to a person or object that provides them with oral satisfaction.. (feeding from the mother)
> Erickson --proposed that diuring the first year of life infants are in the stage of trust vs mistrust. // physical comfort and sensitive care are the key to establishing basic level of trust during infancy.
> Harlow -- (baby monkeys... wire or cloth mother) proved that attachment is more than just providing food. that contact comfort is also needed.
163
What are Bowlby's four phases of attachment?
1) birth to 2 months - infant direct their attactchment to human figures. strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant.
2) 2-7 months - attachment focussed on one figure ( usually primary caregiver); baby. distinguishes between familiar / unfamiliar people
3) 7-24 months - specific attachments develop ; locomotor skills allow babies to actively seek contact with caregivers
4) 24 months - children are aware of others' feelings, goals, plans; take these into account in their own actions.
164
what are the 4 types of attachment (Mary Ainsworth)
name and describe
1) Secure attachment = use caregivers as secure base from which to explore the environment
2) insecure avoidant = show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver
3) insecure resistant = cling to caregiver then resist by fighting the closeness
4) insecure disorganized = disorganized and disoriented; might appear dazed, confused, and fearful
165
ATTACHMENT – Other Perspectives
* An important issue regarding attachment is how stable is the relationship and attachment to caregivers from infancy to adulthood.
* Biology and temperament influence the infant. Some infants are resilient and have good attachment even when raised by neglectful caregivers.
* Cultural and parenting influences on attachment abound. Some cultures place more emphasis on close contact between caregiver and infant and others don’t.
notes notes
166
in what ways can the family of an infant be thought of as "a constellation of subsystems"?
- each family member participates in a bunch of different subsystems
- these subsystems have a reciprocal influence on each other...
e. g. Marital relationships, Parenting style, and child behaviour and development all have a bi-dirrectional effect on each other
for instance. problems within a marriage may result a change in parenting style, and affect the Childs behaviour.
167
What is reciprocal socialization?
for a lot of years socialization was considered to be a one way process... children socialize their parents.
bidirectional socialization ; children socialize parents just as parents socialize their children.
this can look like mutually contingent behaviours such as one partner imitating the sound of another. or the mom responding to a vocalization of the babies arm movement
168
What is scaffolding?
parents time interactions so the infant experiences taking turns with the parent.
e.g. peak-a-boo is an example of scaffoling.. as infants get more skilled at the game they will start covering and uncovering their eyes to mimic the parent.
169
how do maternal and paternal interaction differ in their caretaking roles.
on average, maternal interactions centre on child care activities (feeding, bathing.)
paternal interactions are more likely play, especially rough and tumble play.
170
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
What is attributed to the INFANCY (0-2) stage?
Trust vs Mistrust
171
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
What is attiibuted to the toddlerhood stage?
autonomy vs shame and doubt
172
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
what is attributed to the preschool stage?
Initiative vs guilt
173
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
What is attributed to the elementary school stage?
competence vs inferiority
174
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
What is attributed to the adolescence stage?
identity vs role confusion
175
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
what is attributed to the young adulthood stage?
intimacy vs isolation
176
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
what its attributed to the middle adulthood stage?
generatively vs stagnation
177
ERIKSON'S STAGES:
what is attributed to the late adulthood stage?
integrity vs despair
Psych 171
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