Midterm #1

Question 1

Compare and contrast the steps of the scientific method

Answer 1

1. Observations
2. Lead to questions
3. Questions form hypotheses
4. Hypotheses must be tested through experimentation
5. Analyze data
6. Draw conclusions
7. Share results

Question 2

What does it mean to behave scientifically

Answer 2

• Pay attention to what other people have already done
• Exposing ideas to testing
• Assimilate the evidence
• Openly communicate ideas and tests to others
  - Publish results, even if you did not find anything
• Act with scientific integrity

Question 3

Explain the complex and iterative process of scientific research and how it benefits society.

Answer 3

• Science is prone to revision (ex. new data may require changes to the research question or the study design, or unexpected results may require a reinterpretation of the findings).
• Science is non-linear and is ever changing
• The benefits of scientific research to society is that they allow us to better understand the world, make informed decisions, and develop new technologies, medicines, and treatments.

Question 4

Explain the differences between a theory, hypothesis and fact

Answer 4

Theory:
A wide range of phenomena
A well substantiated explanation of some aspect of the normal world that is acquired.
You can observe
Recorded in fields
Can lead to hypothesis
Which prompts observations
These can all contribute to a greater theory.
Bigger than hypothesis
Narrow set of phenomena

Hypothesis:
a proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence. It is a starting point. It should be:
Reasoned and informed
Able to explain the relationship between variables
Directional → quantifiable
Testable
Smaller than theory

Fact:
Repeated observations accepted as true.

Question 5

IV vs. DV

Answer 5

IV = manipulated to see effect on DV
DV = value depends on IV

Question 6

Recognize the importance of social factors when developing and evaluating scientific studies

Answer 6

Generalizability of results onto marginalized / minority groups

Question 7

Differentiate between science and pseudo-science

Answer 7

Pseudoscience = a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method

Question 8

Describe the importance of controls in an experiment.

Answer 8

Control groups in a treatment intervention provide a baseline for comparison
Controlled variables rule out alternate factors
Possible control groups:
- Nothing
- Placebo

Question 9

Describe the ways scientific information is communicated

Answer 9

Publishing findings is critical to the process of science, bit, we need to know that the information is trustworthy

Question 10

Identify the steps and advantages/disadvantages of the peer review process

Answer 10

1. An author creates a manuscript
2. The author submits a paper (the first author typically did the most work and the last author is typically the principal investigator).
3. The paper is sent to a journal editor (the author can only submit to one journal at a time).
4. A reviewing editor then sends the paper to 3-5 experts in the field. The author is blinded (can’t see who the reviewers are) while the reviewers aren’t.
5. After reviewing, a reviewer has three options: either accept, revise, or reject.
6. Reviewing editor sees feedback and relays it to the author.
7. Author can decide to withdraw paper after receiving feedback
8. The PI applies for grant money relating to fees associated with submitting papers.

Question 11

Evaluate the merit of scientific articles in the media and on the internet

Answer 11

New scientific knowledge (and the process by which it was obtained) is vetted by experts in the relevant field.
It instills trust but is not always perfect.

Advantages:
Standardized process
Saves time reviewing submissions
Vetted by experts
Level of quality and trust

Disadvantages:
Bias against findings / researchers
No quantitative indicators of quality
Different standards between journals
Time
Reviewers are human
Doesn’t mean that the science is correct

Question 12

How do authors decide to where to publish

Answer 12

• Research topic, field, discipline
• Notoriety and prestige of journal
• Novelty or quality of findings
• Cost
• Impact factor
• Accessibility

Question 13

Explain the open access publication model (including predatory journals)

Answer 13

Open Access → provides free, immediate, online, available research articles

Benefits:
More available
Public access research they fund
Access to smaller libraries and low income economies
Makes use of modern technology

Predatory Journals → fake or low-quality academic journals that publish articles without conducting a rigorous peer-review process, often in exchange for a fee. Often deceive authors by promising a quick and easy publication process, while providing little to no editing, reviewing, or formatting services.

Question 14

Explain retraction

Answer 14

The removal of a published article from a journal

What might lead to it?
Fraud (fabrication / manipulation of data)
Plagiarism
Duplicate publishing
Sometimes accidental
Not to be confused with a correction (error in numbers presented, but does not change conclusion / takeaway

Question 15

Describe each of the different levels of evidence

Answer 15

Levels of analysis = provides guidelines when searching for information based on:
- Methodological quality of design
- Validity
- Applicability to patient care
- Provide grade (strength) of recommendation
- Provides guidelines when searching for info
- Highest level of evidence might not be available or applicable to immediately answer your question

ORDER: Meta-Analysis, Systematic, Review, Randomized controlled trial, cohort study, Case-control, Case Series, Expert opinion

Question 16

Meta-Analysis

Answer 16

• Methods of combining the results of independent studies.
• Integrates findings from many published studies
• A type of systematic review
• Systematic methodology for obtaining articles
• A new statistical analysis using the data

Question 17

Systematic Review

Answer 17

• Review involving a detailed and comprehensive plan
• Systematic methodology for obtaining articles integrates findings from many published studies to answer a question
• Reduces bias over traditional reviews of literature
• Not all systematic reviews are meta-analysis

Question 18

Review

Answer 18

• Range of material scrutinized may b broad or narrow, can encompass clinical material as well as experimental research or case reports
• Informative and descriptive narrative of current research studies on a topic
• Not systematic, so chosen articles can have selection bias

Question 19

Random Controlled Trial (RCT)

Answer 19

Work consisting of a clinical trial that involves at least one test treatment and one control treatment
Experimental process with a treatment / intervention
Uses randomly assigned treatment and control groups
“Gold standard” for reliable evidence testing

Question 20

Cohort

Answer 20

Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified
Observational (no experimental treatment)
All subjects are from same group, linked by shared characteristics (cohort)
Divided into subsets from same group for comparisons
Can be prospective or retrospective

Question 21

Case-Control

Answer 21

Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison)
Compares individuals with an existing condition / characteristic to a group without (controls from same source population).
Observational (no experimental treatment)
Usually retrospective (outcome already known
Start with outcome and look back for exposures

Question 22

Case Report / Case Study

Answer 22

Clinical presentations that may be followed by evaluative studies that eventually lead to a diagnosis
Detailed characterization of very few subjects
Observational (no experimental treatment)
Often novel or unique conditions being described
No control

Question 23

Expert Opinion

Answer 23

Presentation of pertinent data by one with special skill or knowledge representing mastery of a particular subject.
Direct knowledge obtained from an expert
Lowest level of scientific evidence

Question 24

How do Meta-Analyses, Systematic Reviews, and Literature Reviews differ?

Answer 24

Meta-Analysis
Performs new data analysis with reviewed study

Systematic Review
Systematic process (pre-planned design with inclusion criteria)

Literature Review
Highlights knowledge about an area
Potential bias in what studies are presented

Question 25

How do Randomized-Controlled Trial, Cohort, and Case-Control differ?

Answer 25

Randomized-Controlled Trial Experimental process Cohort All subjects linked with a shared characteristic Divided into subgroups based on shared characteristics observational Case-Control Some subjects with a condition (cases) compared to subjects known to be free of condition (controls) Retrospective Observational

Question 26

Levels of Evidence Considerations

Answer 26

Considerations observational less validity bc harder to eliminate confounding variables retrospective difficult if historical reporting inaccurate why do we do cohort or case-control studies if RCTs are higher lvl of evidence? unethical to induce conditions Cost-effective

Question 27

MeSH

Answer 27

Medical Subject Headings: A predicted set of terms Purpose: organizes articles by assigning specific words to describe content. It works like a labeling or keyword search A star indicates that certain terms better describe the paper over others.

Question 28

Boolean Logic Operators

Answer 28

OR = everything AND = just the two when they are talked about together NOT = excludes () = like a math equation → can be put around a phrase to indicate all of it The more identifiers, the narrower the results

Question 29

Footnote Chasing

Answer 29

Looking up individual references cited in a source, often by searching for the source using the bibliographic information provided in the footnote or reference list.

Question 30

Pearling

Answer 30

Involves following the trail of references beyond the original source, often by looking up additional sources cited in the references of the original source.

Question 31

Times Cited

Answer 31

Can be used to find related articles

Question 32

Identify and describe the parts of a peer-reviewed scientific article.

Answer 32

Title → concise and descriptive, and should accurately reflect the content of the article Author Abstract → a brief summary of the article, including the research question, methods, results, and conclusions Introduction → provides background information on the research topic, including a review of the existing literature, the research question, and the objectives of the study Article Text Publication Information Figures, charts, graphs, equations A good figure legend includes a title (brief, declarative, and applies to the entire figure) and materials and methods (description of techniques used). Conclusion → summarizes the main findings and their implications, and may include recommendations for future research or practice Article information References → lists the sources cited in the article

Question 33

Define and describe animal ethics in scientific and medical research

Answer 33

Animal ethics → describes human - animal relationships and how animals should be managed and treated The three R’s Replace the use of animals Reduce the number of animals (as few numbers of trials possible). Refine (minimize the stress of animals)

Question 34

Explain how animal research has benefited society

Answer 34

Research to understand the body in health and illness Safety testing of medicines Research and developments

Question 35

Discuss the role and importance of governing bodies in animal research

Answer 35

Setting ethical and welfare standards → standards are designed to ensure that animals are treated humanely and with respect, and that their welfare is safeguarded throughout the research process. Reviewing research proposals → review research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical and welfare standards, and that the research is scientifically sound and justified. Inspecting research facilities → governing bodies may conduct regular inspections of research facilities to ensure that they meet ethical and welfare standards, and that animals are being housed and cared for in a safe and appropriate manner. Enforcing regulations → enforce regulations and guidelines relating to animal research, and may take action against researchers or institutions that violate these standards.

Question 36

Define and describe human ethics in scientific and medical research

Answer 36

Human ethics → principles and guidelines that govern the ethical conduct of research involving human participants. These principles are designed to protect the rights, safety, and welfare of human participants, and to ensure that research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner.

Question 37

Explain how human research has benefited society

Answer 37

Development of medical treatments Technology advancements Disease prevention and treatment

Question 38

Describe the three major guiding principles of the Belmont report.

Answer 38

Respect for persons → protect the autonomy of people - Autonomy = a person’s ability to act on their own values and interests - Informed consent - No deception - Protection for vulnerable participants Beneficence → do no harm - How to maximize benefits of the project, while minimizing risks to the research participants. Justice → fair distribution - Fair distribution of cost and benefit - Who bares the burden - Who benefits

Question 39

Explain the purpose, make-up and role played by the IRB

Answer 39

IRB → an independent committee responsible for reviewing and approving research studies that involve human participants. Purpose → ensure that the research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, and that the rights, safety, and welfare of human participants are protected. Their role → review research studies to ensure that they meet established ethical and regulatory standards. The IRB may also require modifications to the study design or informed consent process to ensure that the research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. Make-up: Scientists with expertise in the field Healthcare professionals (not required) Community members (non-scientists) IRB administrators

Question 40

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Answer 40

an internal oversight committee that oversees animal research activities at institutions that receive federal funding.

Question 41

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Answer 41

oversees research activities involving animals and sets guidelines for the humane treatment of animals used in research.

Question 42

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Answer 42

enforces the Animal Welfare Act, which sets standards for the care and use of animals in research.

Question 43

Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW)

Answer 43

part of the NIH and provides guidance on the ethical use of animals in research.