1
Q
Reasons to learn about child development
A
- Raising children
- Choosing social policies
- Understanding human nature
2
Q
_________ (plato/aristotle) believed children have innate knowledge
A
plato
3
Q
_________ (plato/aristotle) believed that all knowledge comes from experience
A
aristotle
4
Q
What was John Lockes belief of the child?
A
that knowledge has to be learned and advocated first instilling discipline, then gradually increasing the child’s freedom
5
Q
What was Jean-Jacques Rousseau belief of the child?
A
saw the child as inherently, curious and argued that parents and society should give children max freedom
6
Q
Active
A
Do children select their environments? Do human infants have preferences to attend to certain information? Are we by nature curious, motivated, explorative? Do we shape our own development
7
Q
Passive
A
Do we need to be motivated by external rewards or punishments?
8
Q
How do newborns shape their own development?
A
they prefer things that move and make sounds; pay particular attention to mothers face which provides rich (experience expectant) input for learning, and relationship forming
9
Q
How do toddlers shape their own development?
A
they are internally motivated to learn and practice talking; using self speech
10
Q
Continuity view of development
A
change is uniform and gradual; quantitative
11
Q
DIscontinuity view of development
A
changes can be rapid, with qualitatively different stages across the lifespan
12
Q
critical period
A
a time window during which a given behaviour is especially susceptible to, and indeed requires, specific environmental influences to develop normally
13
Q
experience expectant
A
those specific environmental influences that are expected by, and necessary to, a developing system (e.g., human faces; human language)
14
Q
Experience dependent
A
those environmental influences that lead to more general learning (toys, specific foods, specific words)
15
Q
How does the sociocultural context influence development?
A
- Family, cultural, and societal context
- microsystem –> mesosystem –> exosystem –> macrosystem
16
Q
Individual differences: how do children become so different from one another?
A
- genetic differences
- differences in treatment by parents and others
- differences in reactions to similar experiences
- different choices of environment
17
Q
Research designs for examining children’s development (3)
A
cross sectional, longitudinal, microgenetic
18
Q
cross sectional
A
- People of different ages all studied at the SAME time
- Reveals similarity and differences between older and younger
- Don’t have to worry about attrition
- Costly, requires more participants
- Does not reveal info about stability of behavior of time
19
Q
longitudinal
A
- same participants studied repeatedly at different ages
- accounts for individual differences
- less costly
- attrition
- threats to validity
20
Q
microgenetic
A
- same participants studied repeatedly over a short period as they master a task
- detailed and in-depth depiction of the processes that produce change
21
Q
Infant experimental procedures (3)
A
- discrimination/categorization procedures
- preference procedures
- “knowledge” procedures
22
Q
Infant experimental procedures: discrimination/categorization
A
- habituation/dishabituation a common procedure
- capitalizes on the fact infants will attend to things they’re interested in
23
Q
Infant experimental procedures: preference procedures
A
among options, which do infants attend to longer?
24
Q
Infant experimental procedures: “Knowledge” procedures
A
- high level interpretations vs. low-level interpretations
- violation of expectancy: infants might have expectations of how things should operate in the world, and if they see something that goes against this expectation, they may be surprised
- choice tasks
25
Key properties of behavioural measures
- relevance to hypotheis
- reliability
- inter-rater reliability
- test-retest reliability
- validity
- internal validity
- external validity
26
EEG
good temporal resolution
poor spatial resolution
27
MEG
better spatial resolution
28
MRI and fMRI
infants need to be still
spatial localization
bad temporal resolution
29
fNIRS
- measures hemodynamic responses using lights
- can determine changes in amount of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
- spatial localization
- poor temp resolution
30
Ethical issues in child develop. research
* Infants and children can’t provide informed consent but can provide
assent
* Researchers have a vital responsibility to anticipate potential risks and
minimize them
* We try to make sure the benefits of research outweigh potential harm
31
Ethical research requires:
* Informed consent
* Parents/caregivers give on behalf of children or infants
* ”Assent” is still important and researchers look for cues for withdrawn assent
* Honesty & Transparency
* Full disclosure of any conflict of interest
* Random sample unless otherwise specified
* Not manipulating the data (e.g., fudging data, p-hacking)
* Good research requires stringent adherence to ethical standard
* Ethical research requires thoughtful and appropriately experimental
design and implementation
32
genome
each person's complete set of hereditary information; the complete set of DNA of any organism, including all of its genes
33
epigenetics
the study of stables changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
34
methylation
a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression
35
Stage theories
approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases.
36
cognitive development
the development of thinking and reasoning
37
effortful attention
voluntary control of one's emotions and thoughts
38
neurotransmitters
chemicals involved in communication among brain cells
39
sociocultural context
the physical, social, cultural, political, economic, and historical circumstances that make up a child's environment
40
cumulative risk
the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development
41
characteristics of resilient children
1. positive personal qualities (high intelligence, easy going personality, optimistic outlook)
2. close relationship w/ at least one parent
3. a close relationship with at least one adult other than their parents
42
Dante is a 2-year-old who talks incessantly when he is alone in his bedroom. His parents are concerned with this odd-seeming behaviour. You tell them that Dante is practicing "_____," and it is probably helping him improve his speech.
crib speech
43
Empiricist
believe that individuals learn from ecperience
44
active child
how children contribute to their own development
45
epigenesis
the emergence of new structures and functions in the course of development
46
gametes
reproductive cells - egg and sperm - that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body
47
meiosis
cell division that produces gametes
48
conception
the union of an egg and sperm
49
zygote
a fertilized egg cell
50
what are the four major developmental processes that underlie the transformation of a zygote into an embryo into a fetus?
1. cell division
2. cell migration
3. cell differentiation
4. death
51
embryo
the developing organism from the 3rd to 8th week of prenatal development
52
fetus
the developing organism from the 9th week to birth
53
mitosis (cell division)
cell division that results in two identical cells
54
process of cell division
1. mitosis
2. divide into four
3. divide into eight
and so on
55
cell migration
the movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin
56
cell differentiation
specialization of cells
57
embryonic stem cells
embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell
58
apoptosis
cell suicide
59
how do hormones play a role in sexual differentiation?
the presence of androgens lead to the development of male genitalia, and the absence of androgens lead to the development of female genetalia
60
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
a rare genetic syndrome where the adrenal gland overproduces androgens during fetal development
61
how are hormones important in prenatal development?
sex, fetal growth, fetal tissue maturation
62
identical (monozygotic) twins
twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two resulting zygotes having exactly the same set of genes
63
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm
64
Ectopic pregnancies
pregnancy in which the fertilized egg implants and grows in an organ outside of the uterus (most often in the fallopian tube), preventing normal growth of the fetus and putting the expectant parent at risk of life-threatening injury
65
neural tube
a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually become the brain and spinal cord
66
amniotic sac
a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus
67
placenta
a support organ for the fetus; it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and pregnant parent separate, but a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them (oxygen and nutrients from pregnant parent to fetus, and carbon dioxide and waste products from fetus to pregnant parent)
68
umbilical cord
a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta
69
cephalocaudal development
the pattern of growth in which areas near the head develop earlier than areas farther from the head
70
Trimester 1 timeline
1-12 weeks
71
Trimester 2 timeline
13-24 weeks
72
Trimester 3 timeline
25-38 weeks
73
major milestones in week 1 (trimester 1)
Zygote travels from fallopian tube to womb and embeds in uterine lining; cells arrange into a ball and begin to form embryo and support system
74
major milestones in week 2-3 (trimester 1)
embryo forms three layers, which will become the nervous system and skin; muscles, bones, and circulatory system; and digestive system, lungs, and glands; neural tube also develops
75
major milestones in week 4 (trimester 1)
neural tube continues to develop into the brain and spinal cord; primitive heart is visible , as are leg and arm buds
76
Major milestones in weeks 5-9 (trimester 1)
facial features differentiate; rapid brain growth occurs; internal organs form; fingers and toes emerge; sexual differentiation has started
77
Major milestones in weeks 10-12 (trimester 1)
Heart develops its basic adult structures; spice and ribs develop more fully; brain forms major divisions
78
Major milestones in weeks 13-24 (trimester 2)
lower body growth accelerates; external genitalia are fully developed; body develops hairy outer covering; fetus can make basic facial expressions; fetal movements can be felt by the pregnant parent
79
Major milestones in weeks 25-38 (trimester 3)
Fetus triples in size; brain and lungs are sufficiently developed at 28 weeks to allow survival outside of womb; visual and auditory systems are functional; fetus is capable of learning and behaviours begin to emerge
80
when do hiccups start to emerge in fetus'
7 weeks
81
fetal breathing
when the fetus moves its chest wall in and out, taking small amounts of amniotic fluid and expelling it
82
Phylogenetic continuity
humans share many characteristics, behaviours, and developmental processes with nonhuman animals, especially mammals, due to our common evolutionary history
83
during the ______ trimester, external noises elicit changes in fetal movements and heart rate
third
84
habituation
a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated of continued stimulation
85
dishabituation
the introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus
86
teratogens
an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development
87
dose response relation
a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure (prenatally, the more exposure a fetus has to a potential teratogen, the more severe its effect is likely to be)
88
fetal programming
the belated emergence of effects of prenatal experience that help determine physiology in adulthood
89
SIDS
the sudden, unexpected death of an infant less than 1 year of age that has no identifiable cause
90
FASD
the harmful effects of alcohol consumption on a developing fetus, including characteristic facial features, intellectual development disorder, attentional challenges, and hyperactivity
91
Maternal factors that can affect prenatal development
1. age
2. nutrition
3. disease
4. emotional state
92
how can maternal age affect prenatal development?
teen pregnancies = more likely for baby to die before 1st bday
older parents = higher risk of developmental disorders
93
How can maternal nutrition affect prenatal development?
ex. too little folic acid = spina bifida
- associated w SES
94
how can maternal disease affect prenatal development?
ex. rubella = development disorders
ex. STIs, zika
95
How can maternal emotional state affect prenatal development?
the effect of stress during pregnancy increases risk of cognitive development and later psychiatric diagnoses
96
What causes the hormonal changes that signal the body to go into labour? (2 possibilities)
1. they are triggered by a genetic switch in the placenta that essentially operates as a biological clock
2. as fetal lungs mature, they secrete a protein that helps initiate labour
97
crowning
the point at which the baby's head appears
98
colustrum
the first milk generated after birth
99
what hormones decrease following delivery? what hormones increase?
progesterone and estrogen decrease, oxytocin increases
100
all cultures pursue the dual goals of _____ and ______
1. safeguarding the survival and health of both parent and baby
2. ensuring the social integration of the new person
101
State
level of arousal and engagement in the environment, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity
102
average proportion of time that newborns are in quiet sleep
8 hrs
103
average proportion of time that newborns are in active sleep
8 hrs
104
average proportion of time that newborns are drowsing
1 hr
105
average proportion of time that newborns are alert awake
2.5 hrs
106
average proportion of time that newborns are in active awake
2.5 hrs
107
average proportion of time that newborns are in crying state
2 hrs
108
Why do infants spend so much time in REM sleep?
1. helps develop the infant's visual system
2. myoclonic twitching may help infants build sensorimotor maps
109
apgar score
method for evaluating the health of the newborn immediately following birth based on skin tone, pulse rate, facial response, arm and leg activity, and breathing
110
infant mortality
death during the first year after birth
111
low birth weight
a birth weight of less than 5 1/2 pounds (2500 grams)
112
premature
any child born at 37 weeks after conception or earlier (as opposed to the normal term of 38 weeks)
113
small for gestational age
babies who weigh substantially less than is normal for whatever their gestational age.
114
long-term outcomes of LBW infants
higher incidence of developmental problems and psychiatric issues
115
kangaroo care
a variant of skin-to-skin care, in which caregivers act as incubators to help maintain LBW infants' skin temp - decreasing mortality and increasing growth, breast-feeding, and attachment
116
developmental resilience
successful development in spite of multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards
117
the single cell that forms when two gametes merge during conception is called the _______
zygote
118
which process of prenatal development is critical for the specialization of cells?
cell differentiation
119
which system protects the developing embryo from dangerous toxins?
placenta
120
the disproportionately large head of a 5-month-old fetus is a typical results of the normal process of ________
cephalocaudal development
121
which sense is the LEAST active while the fetus is in the womb?
sight
122
The DeCasper and Spence study, in which pregnant parents read aloud twice a day from the same book during their last 6 weeks of pregnancy, was designed to assess ______
fetal learning
123
What are the functions of the squeezing a fetus experiences during delivery serves?
1. it temporarily reduces the size of the infant's head, allowing it to pass safely through the pelvic bone
2. it stimulates the production of hormones that help the fetus withstand mild oxygen deprivation
3. it forces amniotic fluid out of the lungs, in preparation for the baby's first breaths
124
genome
each person's complete set of hereditary information; the complete set of DNA of any organism, including all of its genes
125
gene synthesis
a method for producing DNA
126
genotype
the genetic material an individual inherits
127
phenotype
the observable expression of the genotype, including both body characteristics and behaviour
128
environment
every aspect of individuals and their surroundings other than genes
129
the genotype, phenotype, and environment are involved in five relations fundamental in the development of every child:
1. parents genetic contribution to children's genotype
2. the contribution of children's genotype to their own phenotype
3. the contribution of children's environments to their phenotypes
4. the influence of children's phenotypes on their environments
5. the influence of children's environments on their genotypes
130
crossing over
the process by which sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; crossing over promotes variability amongst individuals
131
mutations
a change in a section of DNA
132
sex chromosomes
the chromosomes (X and Y) that typically correlate to an individual's assigned sex at birth
133
female at birth chromosomes
XX
134
male at birth chromosomes
Xy
135
endophenotypes
intermediate phenotypes, including the brain and nervous system, that do not involve overt behaviour
136
regulator genes
genes that control the activity of other genes
137
alleles
two of more different forms of a gene that influence the same trait or characteristic, but contribute to different developmental outcomes
138
139
dominant
the allele that, if present, gets expressed
140
recessive
the allele that is not expressed if a dominant allele is pressent
141
homozygous
having tow of the same allele for a trait
142
heterozygous
having two different alleles for a trait
143
polygenic inheritance
inheritance pattern in which traits are governed by more than one gene
144
phenylketonuria (PKU)
a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine
145
epigenetics
the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
146
behavioural genetics
the science concerned with how variation in behaviour and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors
146
heritable
refers to characteristics or traits that are genetically transmitted
147
cerebral cortex
the "grey matter" of the brain, consisting of four lobes
148
cerebral lateralization
the specialization of the hemispheres of the brain for different modes of processing
149
Neurogenesis
the proliferation of neurons through cell division
150
abourization
formation of new dendritic trees and branches
151
spines
formations on the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrites' capacity to form connections with other neurons
152
synaptogenesis
the process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections
153
synaptic pruning
the normal developmental process through which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
154
Experience-expectant plasticity
the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of species-typical experiences
155
Experience-dependent plasticity
the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual's experience
156
secular trends
marked changes in physical development that have occurred over generations
157
the genetic material an individual inherits is called the ______
genotype
158
marcus has red hair, green eyes, and freckles. He is very active but shy. These characteristics are a reflection of Marcus's ________
phenotype
159
PSYC 302 Infancy
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