1
Q
What is anthropology?
A
The study of human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology
2
Q
What are the three sub-fields of anthropology?
A
Cultural anthropology, archaeology, biological anthropology
3
Q
How did cultural anthropology arise?
A
19th century Europeans becoming aware of primitive societies in Africa, Asia, and New World; conducted ethnographies (qualitative accounts of human societies)
4
Q
What is medical anthropology?
A
A field of study that tries to understand how health and illness are viewed, shaped, and adapted in a biocultural context
5
Q
What is ethnobotany?
A
A field that studies plants in an ethnographic context, which has gone largely extinct since the compounds within these plants which have medicinal value have been identified
6
Q
What is archeaology?
A
The reconstruction of human cultural history through recovery, analysis, and interpretation of material culture (what humans manufacture)
7
Q
What is biological anthropology?
A
Human biology within an evolutionary framework
8
Q
What is the precise meaning of evolution?
A
Genetic change in a population from one generation to the next
9
Q
Process of evolution vs Mechanism of evolution
A
Process of evolution is a fact while the mechanisms of evolution are debatable and covered by theory
10
Q
What is culture?
A
The strategy by which humans adapt to the natural environment
11
Q
What is paleoanthropology?
A
A subfield of biological anthropology which studies human biological and cultural evolution in pre-recent populations; studies everything but mainly fossil record of human ancestors and early human cultural artifacts
12
Q
Who are the founders of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (recently renamed to American Association of Biological Anthropologists)?
A
Ales Hrdlička and Earnest Hooton
13
Q
What is anthropometry?
A
The systematic measurement of the human body
14
Q
What is osteometry?
A
The measurement of skeletal elements
15
Q
What is cephalometrics?
A
The study of the measurement of the head
16
Q
What is craniometrics?
A
The measurement of dry skull
17
Q
What is morphology?
A
The study of size and shape
18
Q
What are the major subdivisions of biological anthropology?
A
Primatology, human biology, paleoanthropology
19
Q
Describe the Platonic view of metaphysical dualism.
A
There is an intelligible world which consists of ideal forms and a perceptible world which is the one around us containing imperfect copies of ideal forms. Everything has an eternal and unchanging essence called The Essential Property which defines an ideal essence for each thing and only exists in in the intelligible world.
20
Q
What was Aristotle’s classification system of animals called?
A
The Scala Naturae (Great Chain of Being)
21
Q
How did Aristotle organize species?
A
Based on complexity, starting from simplest to most complex in which every species on the line graded imperceptibly into the next
22
Q
Who were two individuals who did not believe in the Christian-Platonic fusion of natural order?
A
Anaximander who wrote about gradual evolution and transformation of aquatic into terrestrial species; St. Thomas Aquinas who critiqued idea that organisms originated in accordance with Book of Genesis timetable
23
Q
Who tested spontaneous generation?
A
Francesco Redi.
24
Q
Describe the experiments which disproved spontaneous generation.
A
Francesco Redi took three containers with meat at the bottom. One container was sealed tightly, one had a net top, and the other had no top. There were no larvae and flies in the sealed container yet there were on the one with a net and open container.
25
What did Thomas Burnet argue in his book?
In "The Sacred Theory of the Earth," Burnet argued that the Earth will go through seven phases, starting with a fiery ball and ending with a dead planet as a result of the natural consequences of planet surfaces drying, cracking, and releasing a flood of stored water.
26
What were the hypotheses regarding what the Age of the Earth was based on Genesis?
Archbishop Usher used the book to determine that the Earth was created in 4004 BC; John Lightfoot recalculated the age and determined that it was Sunday, October 23, 4004, 9 am.
27
What is homology?
The study of the similarity of the structure, physiology, and development of different species of organisms based upon descent from common evolutionary ancestors
28
Who developed the concept of homology?
Pierre Belon (studied similarities and differences between skeletons of birds and humans and found that while morphology is different, the bones are the same)
29
What did John Ray claim?
That function = form; espoused teleological view that the structure of an organism is formed for a special purpose (God's purpose)
30
What is the monogenist view?
The view that all people derived from a common ancestor and that some groups degenerated from Adam/Eve to more primitive, animal-like state
31
What is the polygenist view?
The view that all humans descended from one or more pairs of humans which led to different human races
32
Who revolutionized field of medicine by developing anatomical atlases and founded human anatomy?
Vesalius
33
Who described similarities and differences in the anatomy of a monkey, chimpanzee, and human concluding that chimps were more like humans than monkeys?
Edward Tyson
34
Who described morphological differences between primate skulls and devised an angle measuring the degree of facial prognathism to quantify relationships?
Petrus Camper
35
Who founded anthropology? Who defined five nonhierarchical human varieties?
Johann Blumenbach
36
Who was the founder of modern taxonomy through creating binomial nomenclature (through genus and species name)?
Carolus Linnaeus
37
What book did Carolus Linnaeus write?
Systema Naturae
38
What is a type specimen?
A single example of the animal or plant that represents species; created to stop people from submitting descriptions of animals that did not exist
39
Why was Count Buffon important?
He challenged the fixity of species and introduced the concept of Deep Time by scientifically calculating the Earth to be as old as 168,000 years
40
What book did Count Buffon write?
Histoire Naturelle
40
Who was the grandfather of Charles Darwin?
Erasmus Darwin
41
What was the farmer/geologist James Hutton's idea of the types of rock/sentiments?
Igneous (which builds up) and Sedimentary (which breaks down)
42
What is James Hutton's theory of Uniformitarianism?
It's the idea that the processes shaping the Earth today are the same as those that shaped it in the past
43
Who was the first proponent of organic evolution, challenging the fixity of species?
Jean-Baptise Lamarck who didn't propose common ancestry but thought new organisms arose by spontaneous generation based on the fossil record
44
What book did Jean-Baptise Lamarck write?
Philsophie Zoologique
45
Who tested and disproved Lamarck's theory?
August Weismann
46
Describe the experiment which disproved Lamarckian theory.
Weismann cut off the tails in mice to see if they went missing in subsequent generations. Mice were still always born with tails suggesting that changes gained in one's lifetime were not inherited.
47
Who founded modern zoology by dividing animal kingdom into four discrete groups based on nervous systems suggesting that function determines form?
George Cuvier
48
What is Cuvier's Theory of Catastrophism?
Cataclysmic events are regional and kill everything with repopulation from neighboring idea, but since fossil record clearly shows older fossil organisms are less complex than more recent ones, special creation needed to explain origin of more complex forms
49
Who wrote The Geological Evidence for the Antiquity of Man and the Principles of Geology? And was the founder of modern geology?
Charles Lyell
50
What did Charles Lyell claim about geological processes?
That uniform geological processes occur very slowly so they must take a long time and, therefore, the Earth must be old (deep time)
51
Who wrote An Essay on the Principles of Population?
Thomas Malthus
52
Why did Darwin decide to go on voyage?
Botany professor recommended Darwin go on voyage around the world as ship's naturalist
53
How did Darwin come to the conclusion of evolution by descent with modification?
Studying gradual changes in finches
54
Who sent Darwin letter outlining theory of evolution by natural selection?
Alfred Russell Wallace
55
What was Darwin's first major work and what did he talk about?
"Origin of Species" where he discussed descent with modification from a common ancestor and chief agent of modification being natural selection acting on variation
56
Who was one of the earliest defenders of Darwin?
T.H. Huxley
57
What was Darwin's second major work and what did he talk about?
Descent of Man where he said natural selection acts on variation existing in a population but still didn't understand how variation was produced or maintained
58
What were the two theories regarding how variation was produced?
1. Preformation with homunculus; believed organisms existed inside the sperm or egg as a tiny human
2. Blending inheritance/pangenesis; offspring traits are a blend of the average of parents' traits
59
What disproves the blending inheritance/pangenesis theory?
Variation will be quickly lost if blending occurs. Francis Galton (Darwin's cousin) did blood transfusions between groups of purebred rabbits and coat color did not change in next generation
60
What was the law of segregation?
Each organism has two copies of a gene, but only one copy is passed on in gametes; solve problem of variation disappearing under blending
61
What was the law of independent assortment?
Genes that govern one trait assort independently of others
62
What were the three views attempting to bring together Mendelian genetics and the theory of evolution? (Essay question)
There was the mutationist view, advocated for by early neo-Mendelians who argued that evolution arises through sudden, large discontinuous variation. There was the selectionist view which believed in Darwinian evolution by means of natural selection. There was the paleontological view which believed that evolutionary change is directional and constrains organisms to evolve in certain directions. Parts of all three views have truth to them.
63
Who mathematically demonstrated that a Mendelian pattern of inheritance is entirely consistent with a theory of gradual evolution based on natural selection?
Ronald Fisher
64
Who synthesized field studies with those derived from experimental and mathematical genetics to form a single, connected statement on process of evolution, solving problem of discontinuous and continuous characters in evolution
T. Dobzhansky
65
Who, using horse fossils, showed that evolution has proceeded in different directions and different rates at different times resulting in the Modern Synthesis?
G.G. Simpson
66
Who wrote Prehistoric Times and what was in the book?
Sir John Lubbock who basically constructed prehistory (e.g. Stone Age)
67
Two cell types:
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
68
What are prokaryotes and when/where did they appear?
Have no nucleus and appeared 3.7 billion years ago in bacteria/blue green algae
69
What are eukaryotes and when did they appear?
Have nucleated cells and appeared 1.2 billion years ago
70
What led to the rise of eukaryotes?
Rapid accumulation of atmospheric oxygen
71
mtDNA arose by which process?
Endosymbiosis; they were bacterial mtDNA in a ring degraded to not be viable outside the human cell
72
Who investigated DNA and determined that it is configured in a double helix?
Watson and Crick
73
DNA is made up of a sequence of ...
nucleotides
74
What does a nucleotide consist of?
Sugar molecule, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
75
Bases are made in which complementary pairs?
Pair 1: Adenine and Thymine
Pair 2: Guanine and Cytosine
76
In humans how many base pairs are contained in our chromosomes?
3 billion
77
What are the two types of chromosomes?
Autosomes and sex chromosomes
78
Chromosomes are arranged in ... homologous pairs
23
79
What are homologous chromosomes?
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent, that have the same length, gene order, and centromere position, but may have different versions (alleles) of those genes
80
Most frequent deviations from complete sexual dimorphism are from ... ?
nondimorphic sex chromosomal conditions and alterations in steroid hormone metabolism
81
Which condition is associated with increased risk of learning disabilities, delayed development of speech and language skills, delayed development of motor skills, weak muscle tone, and behavioral/emotional difficulties?
Trisomy X
82
What is a karyotype?
An individual's complete set of chromosomes
83
Replication is important in which two processes?
Mitosis and meiosis
84
What is mitosis?
It's the process of replication for somatic cells. It starts and ends with 46 chromosomes (diploid number)
85
What is meiosis?
It's the process of replication for sex cells. It starts with 46 chromosomes and ends with 23 chromosomes (haploid number) because of reduction division where homologous chromosomes get separated so that when sex cells combine, new organisms don't double its chromosome number every generation
86
What are the two divisions of meiosis?
Meiosis I which has reduction division with one diploid cell becoming two haploid cells and chromosome numbers staying the same due to homologous chromosomes getting separated, Meiosis II is like mitosis resulting in 4 haploid gametes which are all genetically unique
87
When does crossing over happen during meiosis?
They happen when homologous chromosomes pair up, lining up so closely that the chromatids can overlap; at points called chiasmata, they break and swap segments of DNA, resulting in recombination
88
Why does crossing over matter?
Crossing over in meiosis is important because it creates genetic variation by exchanging segments of DNA between homologous chromosomes, leading to new combinations of genes in offspring. This increased genetic diversity is essential for the adaptability, evolution, and survival of a population by allowing it to better cope with changing environments and resist diseases.
89
Proteins comprise of:
structural proteins, enzymes, and hormones
90
Proteins are ...
chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
91
How many different types of amino acids are there?
20
92
DNA is organized into ...
Triplet codons composed of three bases, three bases contained in one codon, one codon associating with one amino acid (of 20)
93
What are the two processes involved in the creation of protein?
Transcription and Translation
94
Explain the process of transcription.
1. Initiation (an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds at the promoter region of the gene)
2. Elongation (RNA polymerase moves along the DNA, unzipping it and using one strand as a template; uracil is substituted for thymine)
3. Termination (the mRNA is completed, processed, and leaves the nucleus)
95
What is the purpose of transcription?
Make an RNA molecule (working copy of the gene); since DNA is too precious to leave the nucleus, the cell writes a message
96
Explain the process of translation.
1. Initiation (mRNA passes through the nuclear membrane and binds with a ribosome or ruff endoplasmic reticulum)
2. Elongation (ribosome reads a codon on mRNA and requests a tRNA; each tRNA has one of the 20 possible amino acids attached to it)
3. Termination (mRNA read until the end where there is a stop codon)
97
What is the purpose of translation?
To create a polypeptide chain (sequence of amino acids) which will form a protein or part of one
98
What is a gene?
A molecular unit of heredity
99
What is an allele?
A version of a gene
100
What is a locus?
A position on a chromosome where a gene/allele occurs
101
Approximately how many genes/alleles does it take to make a human?
20-22,000
102
What DNA change has been demonstrated to have a relationship with tumor growth?
Junk DNA which appears to result in the accumulation of duplicate sequences
103
Explain the difference between homozygous, heterozygous, and hemizygous.
Homozygous for trait means two of the same alleles for a trait, heterozygous means two different alleles for a gene, hemizygous means you have only one copy of a gene instead of the usual two
103
How can multiple proteins be created?
Through alternatively splicing mRNA, which is why number of genes may not be that important
104
In a normal dominant/recessive system versus a codominant (where two different traits are both fully expressed rather than one dominating over the other) one, how many genotypes and phenotypes are there in each?
In normal: 3 genotypes and 2 phenotypes
In codominant: 3 genotypes and 3 phenotypes
105
What is the different between Mendelian and Polygenic traits?
Mendelian traits are discrete and discontinuous (e.g. ABO blood and insulin) whereas Polygenic traits are continuous and involve multiple genes
106
Do Mendelian or polygenic traits have higher evolvability?
Polygenic traits
107
What are the four forces of evolution?
1. Gene Flow (migration)
2. Genetic drift (founder's effect)
3. Mutation
4. Natural Selection
108
Describe Falconer's microevolutionary experiment in mice.
He raised two populations of mice in identical conditions, practiced artificial selection by taking the largest mice out of one population and the smallest mice out of the other, found that the two populations diverged very rapidly with one population having only large mice and the other having only small mice.
109
To determine if evolution is occurring in population, what can you do?
You can use the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Equation (p^2 + 2pq + q^2) (p being frequency of dominant allele, q being frequency of recessive allele, p + q = 1, use Punnett Square to do allele combinations)
110
Under the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Equation, if you are trying to determine if evolution is occurring in a population, which conditions are required?
1. Large population (no drift)
2. No mutation
3. No selection
4. Random mating
111
Describe what the C. elegans (roundworm) study found.
Experiment found that SNP resulting in two different alleles in the neuropeptide receptor-Y resulted in worms with social allele clumping together, moving faster, and searching for food more eagerly while solitary worms do the opposite; Human and worm neuropeptide receptor-Y are similar
112
What is transgenerational epigenetic memory caused by?
The process of methylation of portions of DNA that have a cytosine followed by a guanine (carbon molecules attaching preferentially to cytosine); caused by developmental or environmental stimulus
113
What is one example of an epigenetic change in a population?
The Dutch Hunger Winter resulting in reduced IGF-2 production, resulting in reduced growth in subsequenet generations
114
What kingdom are humans a part of?
Animalia
115
What phylum are humans a part of?
Chordata (which results in notochord, nerve cord, gill slits)
116
What subphyla are humans a part of?
Vertebrata
117
What class are humans a part of?
Mammalia
118
What order are humans a part of?
Primate
119
What family are humans a part of?
Hominidae
120
What genus are humans a part of?
Homo
121
What species are humans a part of?
Sapiens
122
What are systematics?
The study of the diversity of organisms
123
What are the two parts of systematics?
Taxonomy (naming and assigning organisms to taxonomic groups) and Phylogeny (classification system that includes information on evolutionary history)
124
What is the Law of Priority in taxonomy?
The oldest validly published scientific name for a species or taxon is its correct and official name
125
What are the four classification systems for species?
1. Biological Species Concept (ability to breed and produce viable offspring)
2. Typological Species Concept (archetype)
3. Morphological Species Concept (similar in size and shape)
4. Phylogenetic Species Concept (similar evolutionary history)
126
Explain the difference between homologous and analogous structures.
Homologous structures include similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor resulting in a common body plan; analogous structures include similarities due to a common function with no assumed common evolutionary descent
127
What was Earnest Haeckel known for?
The biogenetic law (evolution occurs by adding new changes to the end of the embryological or developmental sequence)
128
What was Karl Ernst von Baer known for?
Helped bring forward the realization that organisms share a common body plan because they share a common ancestor
129
What is the phylotypic stage?
A period of mid-embyronic development where organisms look similar
130
What is heterochrony?
Variations in the rate and timing of developmental events
131
What were the two models for how new species arise at the time?
1. Phyletic (Darwinian) Gradualism: evolution happens slowly and steadily; small genetic changes accumulate over long periods
2. Punctuated Equilibrium: species stay mostly unchanged for a long time then rapid bursts of change happen when new species appear, often triggered by sudden environmental shifts or isolated populations
132
What are the two ways in which speciation events can occur?
1. Sympatric speciation where single species diverges while still interbreeding; hard to demonstrate
2. Allopatric speciation where geographic isolation causes species separation
133
What is the main method of phylogenetic reconstruction?
Cladistics where a cladogram is drawn
134
In a human embryo, which part is the nerve cord and which part is the notochord?
The thicker layer is the nerve cord and the thinner layer is the notochord
135
Explain convergent vs parallel evolution
Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species evolve similar traits due to similar evolutionary pressures whereas parallel evolution occurs when closely related species evolve similar traits independently
136
What do cladists classify both convergent and parallel evolution under?
Homoplasy (similarity not due to shared evolution but because of independent evolution
137
Discuss the primate anatomical and behavioral trend that results in the change in vision and olfaction.
The anatomical trend is the reduction in the size of the olfactory (smell) structures and expansion of visual centers in the brain. Eyes become forward-facing, allowing binocular, three-dimensional vision, stereoscopic vision, and depth perception. Eye sockets in skull have either a bony postorbital bar or full bony closure of eye sockets. The behavioral trend is greater reliance on sight for movement, hunting, and social cues instead of smell.
138
Discuss the primate anatomical and behavioral trend for fetal and infant growth.
The anatomical trend is longer gestation, post-natal dependency periods, and slower growth rates. The behavioral trend is increased parental care, social learning, and child dependency.
139
Discuss the primate anatomical and behavioral trend as far as brains.
The anatomical trend is an increase in brain size relative to body size (high encephalization). The behavioral trend is more complex social behavior, problem solving, communication, and learning.
140
Discuss the primate anatomical and behavioral trend as far as teeth and diet goes.
The anatomical trend is generalized dentition. The behavioral trend is greater dietary flexibility.
141
Discuss the primate anatomical and behavioral trend as far as hands and feet goes.
The anatomical trend is opposable thumbs, nails instead of claws, and tactile pads on fingers. The behavioral trend is improved grasping, tool use, and climbing.
142
Let's say there's a diagram representing the OCA2 gene. Point to the two regions of the gene involved in producing either blue, brown, or other eye colors and state how this results in different eye colors.
Mark the regulation box and exon box. Regulation sets the amount of pigment; high expression results in more melanin while reduced expression in less. Exon changes alter the protein's function. Milder activity changes result in intermediate colors while strong loss-of-function can result in very low melanin (up to forms of albinism).
143
What is heterochrony? How did the works of Haeckel, von Baer, and Garstang influence the development of this topic? Include in your answer an example of how heterochrony can be applied to understanding male/female differences in modern humans.
Heterochrony is an evolutionary change in the timing or rate of developmental events, leading to alterations in size, shape, or maturity between ancestor and descendant species.
Ernst Haeckel proposed the idea that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny," suggesting that changes in developmental timing produce evolutionary differences.
Karl von Baer argued that embryos of different species diverge as development progresses, emphasizing developmental timing as a source of evolutionary variation.
Walter Garstang refined the idea, introducing paedomorphosis (retention of juvenile traits into adulthood) and peramorphosis (extended development beyond ancestral form).
In humans, males generally grow for a longer period before puberty ends, leading to greater height, muscle mass, and body/facial hair — a form of peramorphosis. Females mature earlier, showing paedomorphic trends such as smaller body size and rounder features.
144
Whose work had the greatest impact on Darwin's thinking in relation to time and what was the specific impact on Darwin's work? (Essay question)
Understanding the Earth's vast age allowed Darwin to propose that natural selection could gradually shape life over immense time spans. James Hutton, espousing a uniformitarian theory, proposed that geological processes observed today operated in the past, implying a very old Earth. Charles Lyell expanded Hutton’s ideas; his concept of “deep time” profoundly influenced Darwin. Lyell’s view convinced Darwin that small, gradual changes could accumulate over eons to produce major biological transformations. Without an ancient Earth, natural selection would not have enough time to produce the diversity of life.
145
The discovery of Mendel's work was seen as a 'Death blow' to the Theory of Evolution by natural selection. Discuss what the problem was and how it resulted in the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution. Be sure to discuss the work of the people involved in the process.
The problem was that if inheritance happened through discrete units, it must have happened through sudden jumps rather than gradual variation. However, Ronald Fisher demonstrated mathematically that a Mendelian pattern of inheritance is entirely consistent with a theory of evolution based on natural selection. Dobzhansky also synthesized a variety of field studies from experimental and mathematical genetics to create the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution which stated that genes create variation and natural selection acts on this variation.
XANTHRO1
flashcards
Decks in class (5)
# Cards
