Midterm Flashcards

Question

health disparities

Answer 1

Measured outcomes caused by health inequities closely linked to determinants of health, and affecting diverse groups who have been discriminated against or excluded (unequal burden of diseases on discriminated populations that experience health inequities)

Answer 2

aimed at protecting a person, just in case

Answer 3

aimed at detecting disease early

Answer 4

restoring function or rehabilitating to potential

Answer 5

- Stages of health behaviour change - Used in assessing or examining health promotion strategies - Outlines 10 cognitive process and 6 stages of behaviour change - Individuals will weigh the pros and cons of a behaviour to make a decision about that behaviour 1) Precontemplation - lack of desire to talk about behaviour and resistance to change 2) Contemplation - considering pros and cons of behaviour, intends to change behaviour within 6 months (“i know i should quit smoking but i don't know how” 3) Preparation - active process of planning to change behaviour in the next month, a plan is made (“I have joined a gym and bought gym clothes”) 4) Action - significant changes have been in effect for 6 months, goals are made (“i havent smoked in 6 months”) 5) Maintenance - individuals continued efforts to maintain healthy behaviour, prevent relapse 6) Termination - individual has self efficacy and risk of temptation is not a problem. Healthy behaviour is now automatic

Answer 6

``` Individual → population focused Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion: - Build healthy public policy - Strengthen community action - Create supportive environments - Develop personal skills - Reorient health services ```

Answer 7

Canada’s publicly funded universal health insurance system designed to ensure that all residents have reasonable access to medically necessary hospital and physician services. Unofficially, socialized medicine may be referred to as Medicare

Answer 8

Medical Behavioural Socioenvironmental

Answer 9

Focus was on curing diseases Medical interventions were emphasized Health care was reactive; did not incorporate proactive approaches for disease prevention and health promotion Socialized medicine introduced in 1947

Answer 10

A shift from medical to behavioural began in 1970’s A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians (Lalonde Report) Promoted individual responsibility for health Focus on health promotion/disease prevention

Answer 11

1) Assessing the health status of disadvantaged groups and reducing inequities 2) Detecting and managing chronic disease 3) Identifying disease that were preventable and focusing on prevention 4) Enhancing people’s abilities to cope

Answer 12

1) Build public health promotion policies at all levels of government 2) Create and maintain supportive physical, social, cultural, spiritual, and economic environments 3) Strengthen community action to achieve better health via priority setting and responsible decision-making inclusive of diligent assessment, planning and implementation 4) Develop personal skills to enable preparation for all life stages, including illness and injury 5) Redefine and/or reorient health services to better meet the individual and community health needs

Answer 13

- Builds on the behavioural perspective that humans’ chosen interaction with biology, lifestyle, environment, and health care (or access to care) is a legitimate factor in determining health and health outcomes - Social context refers to family and community environment (social support network, housing and education, social status) in which we live and interact - Environmental context refers to human-built environments, encompassing: air, food, and water quality; communication and entertainment technology; transportation; sedentary vs. active lifestyles; food availability; and, cultural components of health

Answer 14

- Sets out criteria, conditions, and national standards for insured health care services that provinces and territories must meet to receive federal funding - Possibly most important landmark legislation in support of Canadian health care because it mandated universal health care coverage for all Canadians - Replaced Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act of 1957 and the Medical Care Act of 1966

Answer 15

- public administration - comprehensiveness - university - portability - accessibility

Answer 16

Each provincial and territorial health insurance plan must be administered and operated on a not-for-profit basis by a public authority

Answer 17

The health-care insurance plan of a province or territory must cover all insured services provided by hospitals, physicians, or dentists and be available to all provincial or territorial residents with equal opportunity.

Answer 18

All insured residents are entitled to the insured health services provided by their respective provincial or territorial health insurance plan on uniform terms and conditions

Answer 19

Residents moving from one province or territory to another continue to be covered for insured health services by their home jurisdiction during any waiting period

Answer 20

Protects all insured people from extra charges for health care and are guaranteed reasonable access to insured hospital, medical, and surgical-dental care on uniform terms and conditions without discrimination on the basis of age, health status, or financial circumstances

Answer 21

Primary - The element that focuses on health care services, including health promotion, illness and injury prevention, and the diagnosis and treatment of illness and injury. - Family doctor, health unit, public health Secondary - Involves diagnosis and treatment of health challenges of varying complexities by specialists. - Physician specialist (ex: dermatologist), community hospital, naturopath Tertiary - Tertiary health care is specialized consultative care involving dedicated supports and resources usually based on a referral from primary or secondary health care providers. - Acute care hospital, palliative care Quaternary - Quaternary care is distinguished by the difference in type and availability of specialized care provided. - Acute care hospital

Answer 22

- Currently, baccalaureate degree as entry to registered nurse (RN) practice is required by all provinces and territories, expect Quebec - In addition to RN practice, other roles include: Registered practical nurse (RPN), Licensed practical nurse (LPN), Registered psychiatric nurse (RPN) - Scope of RN and RPN’s differ and are outlined clearly by provincial and territorial licensing bodies

Answer 23

- Population, healthy ecology, and prevalence of chronic health challenges are among aspects challenging current health care system. - Growing concern about publicly funded health care system and if it can continue to meet changing needs of Canadians. - Pan-Canadian Strategy for Client-Oriented Research (SPOR) created to “support evidence informed transformation and delivery of more cost-effective and integrate health care.”

Answer 24

- Changes to primary health care are ongoing - Key changes include: a shift from individual health providers to teams; telehealth - Reliant on adequate supply of human resources and up-to-date technology

Answer 25

- Shift from institutional to community based - Providing the best care in the most client-appropriate environment while managing health care more efficiently (e.g., changing patterns of care from institutional to community-based) - Currently entering into a phase with provinces making bilateral agreements with the federal government rather than health accords

Answer 26

Key element is the interaction of the individual’s susceptibility (or resilience) on one hand, and risks (or protective factors) on the other Susceptibility (or resilience) is grounded in individual characteristics such as sex, age and genetics Risks (or protective factors) range from pathogens and poisons to environmental conditions

Answer 27

Characteristics which increase or decrease my vulnerability constitute host susceptibility; the characteristics of risk such as the virulence of a strain of influenza constitute agent potential to damage health

Answer 28

the science of explicating the causes and variations of disease incidence, is likewise based on the host/agent model

Answer 29

- Risk factor analysis requires, because it is about probabilities, populations of people with and without a disease of interest and populations who have and have not been exposed to presumed risks - Statistical associations are about a set of observations or a population, not a single event or person

Answer 30

- Risks are therefore probabilities, statistical associations with a health outcome - An association or probability is NOT a cause; it’s a measure of amount of risk - Smoking is risky because more smokers than non-smokers will get lung cancer or have heart attacks - But we do not know how smoking will affect a given individual’s health even though we do know that a group of smokers, as a group, will be less healthy than a group on non-smokers

Answer 31

- Publication in 1974 of A New Perspective on the Health of Canadian (Lalonde) - The 1986 report Achieving Health for All: A Framework for Health Promotion (Epp) - Also in 1986, The Ottawa Charter - In 1997, statement by the Canadian Federal, Provincial and Territorial Advisory Committee on Population Health

Answer 32

- Amplification - things get worse cause we let them - Heavy alcohol consumption combined with smoking have devastating effects on the health of Russian men who live in a highly unequal and unsupportive society - Similar levels of alcohol consumption and smoking do not lead to disastrous health effects among Japanese men who live in a supportive, stable, relatively equal society - Degree to which smoking or drinking or exercising matters is context dependent

Answer 33

risk factor model = biomedical variant + behavioural variant

Answer 34

- age - sex - genetics

Answer 35

The study of the social determination of health behaviour

Answer 36

factors associated with development that had nothing to do with the experiment

Answer 37

- Discovered the “cause” of cholera - People thought cholera came from bad air - Tracked cases of cholera and developed maps relating place to disease incidence, tracing it back to the water supply - Focused on environment (neighbourhood and drinking water) - Rather than moral reasons for epidemics, he saw people’s living conditions as a source of disease

Answer 38

- Published The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844) - Showed that the death rates of poor people in urban centres were much higher than the death rates of poor people in rural settings (death higher in urban workplaces because it was dangerous) - Demonstrated that social and economic change can affect health and longevity - Living and working conditions are the major determinants of health and wellbeing - Health harming behaviour is a product of the conditions under which people live

Answer 39

- A physician, considered a “father” of modern pathology - Report on the Typhus outbreak in Upper Silesia (1848) - Additional medical care and drugs would not be enough to improve population health - Radical political, social, and economic reforms are needed to transform the living conditions of individuals - Linked civil and human rights to health outcomes

Answer 40

- Social facts - Human artifacts in that they arise from the interaction of people in groups - Have the capacity to act as determinants of human behaviour - a broad term designed to encompass the social environment which constrains individual behaviour - Analyzed suicide rates across different communities - The social environment is an important force shaping individual behaviour

Answer 41

shaping beliefs and norms enforcing patterns of social control providing or denying opportunities reducing or producing stress, providing or failing to provide supports to individuals and families

Answer 42

- There are not only differences between individuals health but also patterned, systematic differences in the health of different groups of people within any society - These differences are socially determined and have very little to do with health care, individual behaviours, or lifestyles

Answer 43

- The sharp decline in mortality in Western Europe after 1850 was not due to medical measures such as immunization and treatment, but due entirely to changing social and environmental factors (better living conditions → housing, drinking water, etc.) - The availability and affordability of more diverse and nutritionally rich foods

Answer 44

1) From high birth rates and high death rates → increased wealth and urbanization (declining death rates but high birth rates) 2) From high birth rates → a relatively advanced economic development and declining birth rates 3) From declining birth and death rates → an advanced stage of economic development characterized by stability of the population

Answer 45

- The change from infectious and parasitic diseases in poorer places → chronic diseases in richer ones - This transition appears to occur when societies reach a level of affluence equivalent to roughly $6,000–$10,000 per capita income

Answer 46

In every known society, the better off have superior health to the next best off who in turn have better health than those less well off all the way down the socio-economic ladder to the poorest people in that society

Answer 47

Any departure from a normal state, such as illness or disability; often used, not correctly, as a synonym for “disease” suffering from a medical condition

Answer 48

The number of new cases that arise in a specified population in a specific period of time

Answer 49

Not a rate, but rather a simple count of the number of cases in a population at a point in time

Answer 50

Counts of the number of people who died with a given period, usually a year

Answer 51

Calculation of years of life lost before age 70

Answer 52

Only years spent in good health are counted in calculated life expectancy

Answer 53

- Most important determinant of health - As income rises, health rises (to a certain degree) - Typically, income rises with education - Income necessary to: food, housing, transport, recreation and healthcare - Associated with our standing in society (social status)

Answer 54

- Higher population income typically signifies higher education levels, improved living conditions, improved housing, better diet, and safer, more rewarding work - Having a relatively affluent population is a precondition for stable government, development of infrastructure and social programs - collinearity: Several predictive variables are highly correlated with each other, making it difficult to ascertain the relative contribution of each to the outcome - Does inequality at societal level affect health at the individual level or can everything be explained by individual income?

Answer 55

- Country’s GDP correlates strongly with life expectancy in poorer countries but very weakly with life expectancy in richer ones - At some point (around $10,000 per capita), the relationship between income and life expectancy virtually disappears - Each addition to GDP is less important in more affluent countries; the incremental gains in health grow smaller and smaller and appear to even turn negative at very high levels of societal wealth - Each new increment in an already affluent place (canada) has less effect on health and life expectancy than the same increment of wealth in a poorer place (India) - Total income and average income matter most in poor places, but the distribution of available income matters in rich countries

Answer 56

the uneven distribution of income within a society or community Many developed countries, including Canada, have experienced a substantial increase in income inequality since the 1980’s

Answer 57

sufficient income to meet needs

Answer 58

- Income is a key factor in health - The amount of disposable income depends on taxes and transfers - Incomes should be adjusted for the household size - Different taxation systems affect how much disposable income people actually have, which is especially critical for low income people Flat income tax (everyone pays the same regardless of income) Progressive income tax (tax brackets → how much tax you pay depends on income) Regressive taxes (e.g. consumption taxes)

Answer 59

- In Canada, poverty (especially child poverty) is a serious problem - Poverty is most severe in female sole-support households - Poverty levels among older adults decreased with pension plans and rising value of homes but has not disappeared - Unemployment and falling income in Canada disproportionally affects youth, immigrants, and people residing in eastern Canada - Social assistance programs or “welfare” can mitigate impact of extreme poverty, but assistance levels are too low for healthy living - Residualism - government assistance to people should only be a last resort and be very limited (so people are motivated to go back out and work)

Answer 60

The push to reduce government intervention in business and/or individual lives through reduced regulation and lower taxes. (fixed taxes) (freedom to do what you want with your money)

Answer 61

``` Personal identity Social networks New skills Sense of mastery and control Changes in behaviours Develops the individual as a whole Workplace environments and employment are the biggest stressors ```

Answer 62

- Loss of employment income - Loss of socialization outlets - Loss of social networks - Loss of sense of control - Loss of personal identity/individuality - There are direct and indirect effects of unemployment (Individual level, family level, community level) - Some factors will buffer the effect (social support) - Unemployment increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, use of prescription drugs, smoking, and alcohol consumption - The negative effect of unemployment increases with the frequency of period of unemployment and the duration of each period of unemployment, demonstrating a clear cumulative effect (downward spiral)

Answer 63

- Globalization and the transition to the “knowledge economy” have had dramatic effects on work - It's so easy to communicate across the world, shift production, to have access to others (takes away some local employment) - Commitment to economic growth, globalization, and the emphasis on building a knowledge economy create steadily growing pressure for increased productivity (new phones every year, new car designs and upgrades) (necessary for economic growth) - This means doing more with less, greater work intensity, increased hours of work, and decreased wages and benefits (production is being moved to cheaper areas - china)

Answer 64

- de-industrialization - de-unionization - de-skilling - privatization

Answer 65

Decline in industrial activity (manufacturing is moved to cheaper areas and shipped back)

Answer 66

Employers efforts to exclude unions from workplaces | Try to scare employees from pursuing a union

Answer 67

Increased use of automated processes and routines, important of prefabricated materials, modular construction Replacing skilled workers with machines and importing (cheaper) Shift in health care delivery → more PSW’s, less RN’s (cheaper)

Answer 68

Contracting out and changing ownership of assets Not hiring people within the company (pay salary, benefits, etc.) instead contract out to another company with their own employees (lowest bid) Shifting publicly funded services to private and cutting costs for profit (LTC)

Answer 69

- High strain work that is repetitive in high strain jobs with little control by the employee and little/no support from others - Service industry, low income jobs, repetitive, lack of control, told what to do - linked to metabolic syndrome

Answer 70

Demands made of an employee Capacity to meet those demands “You have to do this by this time” (does the employee have enough time)

Answer 71

Work effort Rewards received (positive reinforcement) When there is no balance between work and reward, we lose motivation

Answer 72

- The workplace forces us to be more sedentary - Workplace encourages bad eating habits Eating at the workstation Bad food choices (quick and easy)

Answer 73

Official unemployment figures do not reflect how many people are unemployed To count as unemployed, you must be: - Recently out of work - Actively seeking work - Available to take a job if one should be offered to you “Hidden unemployed”: long-term unemployed, those who look after a child or an aging parent -These people are not included in unemployment statistics When the job market improves, unemployment rates go up… Why? Because the “hidden unemployed” come out of the shadows and begin looking for work now that the market is better and they are moved to the actual unemployed category

Answer 74

- unemployment insurance - education and training for workforce - wages and benefits - improving working conditions and employee benefits - shift work and commuting

Answer 75

- Collaborative Practice Among Nursing Teams - Developing and Sustaining Effective Staffing and Workload Practices - Developing and Sustaining Nursing Leadership - Embracing Cultural Diversity in Health Care: Developing Cultural Competence - Professionalism in Nursing - Workplace Health, Safety and Well-being of the Nurse

Answer 76

Individuals or groups are in need, at risk of or susceptible to harm because of their exposure to social conditions puts them at greater risk of harm

Answer 77

Materialist Explanation - housing, employment, income, social support Neo-Materialist Approach - unequal distribution of resources Life-Span Approach - Cumulative impact of social and economic conditions on health throughout the lifespan - impact of social determinants of health over lifetime - changes of diet in the indigenous population Psychosocial Explanations - unequal distribution of resources and how that affects the person psychosocially - mentality

Answer 78

- People may or may not identify with a certain group - Identification may lead to negative stereotyping and false classification - Identification is often associated with disease-specific conditions - Identification can lead to inaccuracies in assessment or labelling in health care

Answer 79

- Access to healthcare - Strengthen community resources - Following the CNA Code of Ethics - Addressing Health Inequities - Advocating and Acknowledging SDOH in the health care setting - Involvement in professional groups or organizations that address portion of health equity

Answer 80

the values, beliefs and practices common or inherent to a group of people

Answer 81

- Ethnicity is identified as the most relevant grouping that defines culture - More complex and can include race, origin, ancestry, identity, language, nationality, and religion - Ethnicity is often used as “the polite term” for race - Race and ethnicity are often used to classify people - Culture is more complex than ethnicity or race

Answer 82

- The experience of culture is different from person to person - Culture as a base of understanding is problematic because it overlooks the complexity of the individual’s life - Shaped by sociohistorical, political and economic contexts and power dynamics

Answer 83

- Categorizing individuals based on race - Visible minority is a government based term which classifies individuals based on skin colour outside of Caucasian or White - Labelling, Stereotyping, Alienation, Marginalization, Stigmatization

Answer 84

Developing competence in understanding different cultures Developing competence in learning about others as well as selves to understand how context shapes experience in health and culture

Answer 85

- How the group is perceived and treated that is relevant rather than the different things its members do - The social, economic and political positions of the group within society influence health and health care - Discrimination in health care creates risks for patients, particularly when the groups’ perception is of being demeaned, diminished, or disempowered - HCP practicing critical reflection on own personal and cultural history, values and beliefs before their interactions with patients - Promoting cultural safety

Answer 86

- Social integration as a function of attachment and regulation - If you are more accepted in the group the rates of suicide go down → better health outcomes - Attachment is the extent to which an individual maintains ties with others - Regulation is the extent to which an individual is governed by social beliefs, values, and norms

Answer 87

- protective effects, stemming from social support and social cohesion - Low rates of heart disease among men of Roseto, Pennsylvania - Characteristics of the community → great community involvement, cohesion - Then all the mines closed and everyone lost their jobs and heart disease skyrocketed → community, stability, cohesion was lost

Answer 88

- The richer (larger and denser) your personal network, the better your physical and mental health - Improved access to resources - Enhanced control over your life prospects - Networks discipline members into adhering to norms, beliefs, and values, many of which are potentially health enhancing - Social networks typically discourage “abnormal” high-risk behaviour

Answer 89

refers to the quality of interactions, and has been shown to: lower stress level raise self-esteem facilitate cognitive development encourage and support better health behaviour decrease anxiety

Answer 90

- are about the amount of interactions | - reciprocity/transactional/also supporting others → makes us feel good

Answer 91

- Social stability and predictability are important for cardiovascular and mental health - Social networks influence people’s health-related behaviours - Social isolation harms mental and physical health - Outcomes for men and women differ when they lose a close friend of a spouse - Outcomes of social isolation are worse for men - Relationships tend to be work based, when they retire their friend group ends - Elderly people become more socially isolated → decreased cognitive function, increased mortality, increased depression

Answer 92

``` Participation in community affairs Number of community-based organizations Level of interpersonal trust Sense of security and crime rates Populations of higher income/higher education generate more money, which can be put back into the community for programs, organizations, resources ```

Answer 93

The cohesion between individuals in a society that ensures social order and stability. It underlines the interdependence between people in a society, which makes them feel that they can improve the lives of others Equal societies are healthier

Answer 94

Social capital are those features of social structures (interpersonal trust, reciprocity, mutual aid) that act as resources for individuals and facilitate collective action - What is brought to the group

Answer 95

- is comprised of information and instrumental support embedded in an individual’s social network - Each member is a beneficiary of the capital created by the network - Capital is “created” by the network - Information - Companionship - Emotional support

Answer 96

- refers not only to the economic hardship of relative economic position, but also incorporates the notion of the process of marginalization - Big health gaps exist between dominant and marginalized populations - Social exclusion means exclusion from easy access to a whole host of health-critical resources including: A good education Good quality, high paying job A healthy neighbourhood rich in opportunities High quality housing The benefits associated with social support - It also fuels stress, resentment, and feelings of personal inadequacy

Answer 97

- Human immediately recognize (in milliseconds) people who are of a different race, and react emotionally before they are even conscious of having noticed them - Trouble begins when beliefs, values and social structures, reinforce the innate reactions producing “racism” – social discrimination based on racial characteristics - Structural racism – the totality of ways in which societies foster racial discrimination through materially reinforcing systems of housing, education, employment, earnings, benefits, credit, media, health care and criminal justice - Unfair distribution of resources perpetuate and reinforce negative beliefs

Answer 98

- Infectious diseases brought by the settlers - Foreign settlement, food insecurity, and environmental change - Disruption of Indigenous social, economic, cultural and linguistic institutions - Effort by colonists to segregate or assimilate existing peoples

Answer 99

- Economic and social deprivation - Segregation - Exposure to toxic substances - Socially inflicted trauma - Targeted marketing of unhealthy items - Inadequate health care, education, and social services

Answer 100

- Federal government is responsible for the provision of health care, education, and social services on First Nation reserves - Generally, it has not performed these responsibilities well - Basic - Primary care is provided mostly by outpost nurses - Professional turnover is high - Severely ill people are evacuated - Social and mental health services are underdeveloped

Answer 101

- Macro determinants are contextual and historical - the process of conquest and colonization systematically dislocated indigenous people from their land - In Canada, about 20% of adults living on reserves attended residential schools and, of that 20%, approximately 80% report abuse, social isolation, and loss of cultural identity - Alienation, Depression, Family instability are all attributed to the colonial history

Answer 102

- Health care on-reserve: Underfunded and fragmented Federal/provincial disputes over responsibility Understaffing and poor quality of care in rural and remote areas Lack of culturally-sensitive care - Education on-reserve: Non-culturally appropriate education Poor condition of schools, lack of resources High turnover/staff shortages

Answer 103

``` Housing is in poor state Health behavioural factors such as smoking, drinking Lack of employment opportunities Low levels of educational attainment Low income, high food costs ```

Answer 104

``` Mental health issues Addictions Family violence Sexual abuse Risky behaviours Male and youth suicide ```

Answer 105

- The fair distribution of society’s benefits, responsibilities and their consequences. - Focuses on the relative position of one social group in relationship to others in society as well as the root cause of disparities and what can be done to eliminate them - Since social justice is about fairness and equity in society, making assessments about social justice means making moral and ethical judgments about fairness and equity

Answer 106

- It influences gender and social roles, impacts directly the health of women by restricting their access to health-relevant resources, and impacts health of overall community - Women have higher reproductive risks (STIs and threats to health from pregnancy and childbirth) – major threats to health in poorer parts of the world where HIV/AIDS and complications of childbirth are major causes of mortality among women - Poorer parts of the world – high rates of female HIV infection and maternal mortality persist because of gender inequality, women’s inability to control their own fertility or give/withhold consent for sexual activity, and a general lack of resources on the part of women, notably education and health care services à societies and gender roles are different

Answer 107

- Women appear less healthy than men but live longer - There is a disconnect between women’s self-reported health and their life expectancy - Older men are more likely to die from sudden diseases while women are more likely to suffer from disabilities - For social reasons, women may report worse health Greater sensitivity to health issues Frequent consultations with health care providers Less concern than men that admitting problems might suggest weakness

Answer 108

- Women are more likely than men to experience chronic conditions - Women suffer from severe and moderate disability more than men - Women have significantly higher prevalence of mood disorders - Men appear to embody the mental health effects of stress through alcohol and substance abuse - There is a gendered health difference in the way women and men embody and express stress - This means that both women’s and men’s health are affected by stress but the gender differ in the manner in which these differences become and are embodied → men appear to embody stress-related angst in substance abuse disorders that express anger and hostility while women do so in affective or anxiety disorders indicative of depression

Answer 109

``` Men becoming as sedentary as women Women as active in sports as men Smoking and drinking behaviour is converging Women working in dangerous occupations Alcohol use concerning for women ```

Answer 110

- People who form and maintain stable relationships with a partner are better adjusted, have better mental health or are more resilient in some way than people who remain single or whose relationships break down - Married men and women have better health than single, divorced, or widowed men and women

Answer 111

There is correlation between educational level of women and a variety of measures of population health The health effects of women education extends to the community - Control over fertility and reproduction - Enhanced access to material resources - Increase in personal autonomy - More control over personal and family life

Answer 112

Size, mass, fat-muscle composition, blood circulation (core/periphery) Reproductive role/pregnancy-childbirth Exposures and risks How health issues are understood The extent to which the help of others is sought Compliance with treatments

Answer 113

Contact theory contends that as individuals and groups gain experience with those different from themselves, norms of tolerance and co-operation develop.

Answer 114

- participation rates in elections - levels of trust - community engagement

Midterm Flashcards

(138 cards)