What causes PULMONARY EDEMA
- Excess water
- Left heart failure (blood backs up into lungs)
Difference between APNEA and ORTHOPNEA
APNEA = no spontaneous respirations, criterion for BRAIN DEATH
ORTHOPNEA = can’t breathe when lying flat; clinical manifestation of SYSTOLIC HEART FAILURE or LEFT HEART FAILURE
How does ATHEROSCLEROSIS start
Endothelium injury that lines the artery walls
SYMPTOMS of PULMONARY EDEMA
Cough of PINK FROTHY SPUTUM
Role of ATHEROSCLEROSIS on development of TRUE ANEURYSM
ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUE formation causes INFLAMMATORY CHANGES that ERODE THE VESSEL WALL
Difference between INFARCTION and ISCHEMIA
ISCHEMIA = supply of CORONARY BLOOD CANNOT MEET THE DEMAND of the myocardium for oxygen and nutrients – cells are TRANSIENTLY DEPRIVED OF BLOOD AND OXYGEN
INFARCTION = PROLONGED ISCHEMIA causing IRREVERSIBLE DAMAGE to the heart muscle (myocyte necrosis); infarcted myocardium is surrounded by a ZONE OF HYPOXIC INJURY which can progress to necrosis or return to normal and is ADJACENT to a ZONE OF REVERSIBLE ISCHEMIA
Difference between HDL and LDL
HDL = High-Density Lipoproteins (mainly phospholipids + carrier protein); PROTECTIVE in development of ATHEROSCLEROSIS (can REMOVE EXCESS CHOLESTEROL from arterial walls; responsible for “REVERSE CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT” which RETURNS excess cholesterol from tissues to liver for elimination as bile or conversion to cholesterol-containing steroids)
LDL = cholesterol + carrier protein; responsible for DELIVERY OF CHOLESTEROL TO TISSUES; CONTRIBUTES to development of ATHEROSCLEROSIS
What causes INFECTIVE ENDOCARDITIS
INFLAMMATION of ENDOCARDIUM from INFECTIOUS AGENTS – most commonly bacteria (streptococci, staphylococci, enterococci)
How to avoid getting VARICOSE VEINS
- Lose weight (OBESITY is a risk factor)
- Don’t stand for long periods habitually (DECREASE TIME SPENT STANDING AND SITTING)
- Don’t wear constricting garments or cross the legs at the knee, as this diminishes the action of the muscle pump
- LEG ELEVATION
- COMPRESSION STOCKINGS
- PHYSICAL EXERCISE
What triggers ANGINA PECTORIS
Transient MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA causes transient substernal chest discomfort
Difference between ST ELEVATION MI and NON-ST ELEVATION MI
STEMI = ST segment elevations on ECG trigger IMMEDIATE INTERVENTION; injury EXTENDS through the myocardium
NON-STEMI = smaller infarction; additional myocardium is still at risk for recurrent ischemia and infarction
What conditions cause HYPERKALEMIA
- ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY (AKI)
- Increased potassium intake
- Shift of potassium ions from ICF to ECF
- Decreased renal excretion (KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION/DIALYSIS)
- Hypoxia
- Acidosis
- Insulin deficiency
- Cell trauma
- Digitalis overdose
What is HIV
- RNA RETROVIRUS transmitted through infected body fluids
- CAUSES AIDS
- Severely hinders the IMMUNE SYSTEM
What is the difference between INFECTIVITY and VIRULENCE
INFECTIVITY = ABILITY TO INVADE AND MULTIPLY in the host
VIRULENCE = CAPACITY TO CAUSE SEVERE DISEASE; potency
What are CHEYNE-STOKES RESPIRATIONS
An ABNORMAL PATTERN OF BREATHING in which tidal volume gradually increases followed by a gradual decrease and a period of apnea before returning to a normal respiratory pattern; PERIODIC BREATHING with ALTERNATING HYPERVENTILATION and APNEA
Difference between DECORTICATE and DECEREBRATE posturing
DECORTICATE posturing = abnormal FLEXION of the ARMS with the EXTENSION of the LEGS (ARMS BENT toward center of body and CURLED WRISTS/balled hands against chest)
DECEREBRATE posturing = adduction and internal rotation of the shoulder, EXTENSION at the ELBOWS with PRONATION of the FOREARM, and FLEXION of the FINGERS (FLEXED WRISTS, CURLED FINGERS, straight/tense ARMS PARALLEL TO BODY)
Both are neurological responses to usually noxious stimuli
What is the PRIORITY assessing the NERVOUS SYSTEM for DYSFUNCTION
LEVEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS
What causes VENTRICULAR REMODELING
Days, weeks, or months AFTER A MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION, myocyte hypertrophy and loss of contractility occurs in areas of the heart distant from the site of the infarction
SYMPTOMS of HYPONATREMIA
- LETHARGY
- HEADACHE
- CONFUSION
- APPREHENSION
- SEIZURES
- COMA
SYMPTOMS of a POTASSIUM IMBALANCE
ECG CHANGES:
- HYPOKALEMIA = slightly prolonged PR interval, slightly peaked P wave, SHALLOW T WAVE, prominent U wave
- HYPERKALEMIA = decreased R wave altitude, wide/flat P wave, prolonged PR interval, widened QRS, TALL/PEAKED T WAVE
- MUSCLE WEAKNESS
- LOSS OF MUSCLE TONE
- PARALYSIS
- CARDIAC DYSRHYTHMIAS
Why is OBESITY an important RISK FACTOR for developing TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS
Contributes to mechanisms involving INSULIN RESISTANCE, CHRONIC INFLAMMATION, and ECTOPIC FAT DEPOSITION, all of which DISRUPT NORMAL GLUCOSE METABOLISM and INSULIN FUNCTION
Weight is affected by environment AND genes, and both of those contribute to the development of diabetes
Diabetes can develop secondary to cortisol-induced obesity
What FACTORS contribute to developing HYPERTENSION
- SODIUM INTAKE
- LACK OF EXERCISE
- STRESS
- OBESITY
- POSITIVE FAMILY HISTORY
- ADVANCING AGE
- SMOKING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY of RAYNAUD PHENOMENON
Condition CAUSED by the TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT DEPOSITION of IMMUNE COMPLEXES in the CAPILLARY BED of the PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION
What FACTORS increase RISK for developing CANCER
- ALCOHOL
- AIR POLLUTION
- DIET (lack of fruits/veggies, processed/red meat, lack of fiber)
- HYPERGLYCEMIA/DIABETES
- OVERWEIGHT
- LACK OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE
- POSTMENOPAUSE
- INFECTIONS
- IONIZING RADIATION
- OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS
- REPRODUCTION
- SUN EXPOSURE/SUNBEDS
- TOBACCO
- GENETICS/EPIGENETICS
- PRENATAL EXPOSURE
- PARENTAL EXPOSURE BEFORE CONCEPTION
- SEXUAL BX
