What is Empiricism?
Knowledge comes from systematic observation and measurement.
What is rationalism?
Knowledge comes from logic and reasoning, we need theory, not just raw data.
What is falsifability?
Theories must be testable and open to being proven wrong. If a theory can’t be falsified, it’s not scientific.
Physics model of science assumptions:
A real world exists independent of perception.
Events in the world are deterministic (caused, not random).
Humans can know this world through empiricism + rationalism.
Humans are natural phenomena subject to determinism.
Research should build universal theories/laws (like physics does).
BUT → theories are always tentative, not absolute truth.
How did the physics model shape modern psychological science?
By pushing it toward objectivity, universal laws, and quantitative methods — aiming to be “like the physical sciences.”
What are philosophical tensions that challenge the scientific worldview?
Free will vs. determinism → If the world is deterministic, what about human choice?
Relativism vs. universalism → Is there one true reality, or multiple valid ones?
Values in science → Should research be totally objective and value-free, or do researchers’ perspectives inevitably shape knowledge?
What are two alternative approaches to knowing?
Social construtionism & Indigenous psychologies.
How does social constructionism offer different ways of knowing?
Reality is co-constructed through social interaction.
Multiple valid realities, no single objective truth.
Researcher subjectivity is an asset, not a flaw.
Methods: qualitative (interviews, focus groups, text analysis).
Emphasises culture and context.
How does Indigenous psychologies offer different ways of knowing?
Psychology built from, by, and for local cultures.
In Aotearoa NZ → Kaupapa Māori research.
Challenges the assumption that Western psychology applies universally.
Especially important in social, cultural, and clinical areas.
How do scientific methods reflect and consider specific cultures and values?
Even “objective” scientific methods are shaped by cultural values.
Western psychology reflects Enlightenment/European traditions of empiricism, rationalism, and universalism.
In Aotearoa, bicultural research means recognising Mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge systems) as valid and integrating cultural values into research.
What is research integrity?
Principles and practices that protect trust in science — combining practical safeguards (e.g., transparency, preregistration) and philosophical awareness (e.g., cultural context, assumptions).
How is research integrity understood in Aotearoa/NZ?
Through tikanga and cultural humility: due diligence, clear communication, and mutually beneficial outcomes for communities.
What is cultural humility?
Recognising cultural limitations and biases, acknowledging power imbalances, centring community voices, and being willing to be corrected.
Why is cultural humility important in research?
It builds trust, supports cultural responsiveness, and strengthens scientific integrity by ensuring findings are valid and meaningful for communities.
What are “researcher degrees of freedom”?
Flexible choices researchers make in data collection/analysis (e.g., when to stop collecting, how to treat outliers, which variables to analyse).
How can researcher degrees of freedom bias research?
They can inflate false positives, erode trust in findings, and undermine scientific norms.
What is the “garden of forking paths”?
The hidden flexibility in analysis: researchers may choose different tests depending on the data, increasing the chance of spurious results.
What are key tikanga-based considerations in Māori research ethics?
Due diligence, clear communication, reciprocity, respecting Māori protocols, and ensuring outcomes benefit Māori communities.
How does cultural responsiveness connect to good science?
Transparency, accountability, and culturally appropriate methods enhance both community trust and the rigour of findings.
What is Universalism in science?
Science judges the content of ideas, not the status of the person proposing them; credit the idea, don’t attack the person.
What is Communism (in Merton’s sense)?
Knowledge belongs to everyone; research should be shared widely and communicated to those it matters to.
What is Disinterestedness?
Researchers accept they aren’t bias-free, but aim for objectivity and guard against confirmation bias. Research is not for researchers own benefit.
What is Organised Skepticism?
All knowledge should be open to scrutiny; no idea is too sacred to be publicly questioned.
What is the core equation of Classical Test Theory (CTT)?
X = T + E, where X = observed score, T = true score, and E = error.
