What are descriptive methods?
Do not involve the manipulation of any variables by the researcher. We can only speculate about the causation that may be involved.
Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Researchers may not gather their own data; may answer their research question using data recorded by other individuals for other purposes.
Examples of Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data
Public health and census data may be analyzed years later to answer questions about socioeconomic status, religion, or political party affiliation.
Problems with Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data (1)
- Unless you are dealing with the papers and documents of a few clearly identified individuals, you will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating. Not knowing the participants who make up your sample will make it difficult to understand and generalize your results. Your ability to make statements other than those that merely describe your data is limited.
Problems with Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data (2)
- Participants may have been selective in what they chose to write. Titchener translated Wundt’s book but severely misrepresented him which could affect our impression. His original writings are still available to be retranslated but we still face the problem that Wundt may have omitted things he did not wish to share.
You cannot avoid this problem of selective deposit.
What is selective deposit?
Problem with archival and previously recorded sources of data in which participants may have been selective in what they chose to write.
Problems with Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data (3)
- Survival of such records. In graffiti example, are the walls scrubbed clean every day or is the graffiti allowed to accumulate? The data in which you are interested will probably not have a very high survival rate.
Type of paper on which magazine was printed, high acid content of paper led to disintegration of these magazines, hence only a precious few have survived.
Comparisons with The Experimental Method - Archival and Previously Recorded Data
Aware of nonrepresentative samples, data that was purposely not recorded, and data that may be lost.
Because we examined data that was recorded at a different time under unknown circumstances, we are unable to control the gathering of this data.
Therefore, we cannot make any cause-and-effect statement, the best we can do is speculate about what might have occurred.
Naturalistic Observation
Seeking answers to research questions by observing behaviour in the real world, hallmark of qualitative research.
Can also use naturalistic observation to collect numerical data and answer more focused research questions.
Example; Researcher interested in child behaviour may go to a daycare center and record observations/their behaviour.
First goal of naturalistic observation
To describe behaviour as it occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the lab.
Second goal of naturalistic observation
Describe the variables that are present and the relations among them.
Naturalistic observation may provide clues concerning why birds migrate at particular times of the year and what factors determine the length of stay in a certain area.
What is important for the researcher to not do in naturalistic observation?
Not interfere with or intervene in the behaviour being studied. Observer should be as inconspcious as possible, one-way mirrors are popular.
Why must researcher be unobtrusive in naturalistic observation?
Avoid influencing or changing the behaviour of the participants of the study. Presence of an observer is not part of the natural setting, therefore they may behave differently in the presence of an observer.
Reactance or Reactivity Effect/Hawthorne Effect
Biasing of the participants responses because they know they are being observed.
Also called the Hawthorne effect because of Hawthorne experiment, which measured lighting on productivity. When lighting was dimmed, people were more productive than the plant. They knew they were research participants in an experiment, thus performed better.
Main drawback of naturalistic observation
Inability to make cause-and-effect statements, we do not manipulate any variables when we use this technique.
High on external validity, low on internal validity
Objectivity
Why use naturalistic observation if it does not allow us to make cause-and-effect statements? (1)
May be our only choice of research techniques to study a particular type of behaviour. Psychologists interested in seeing reactions after natural disasters cannot recreate these life-threatening situations, they must make their observations under naturally occurring conditions.
Why use naturalistic observation if it does not allow to make cause-and-effect statements? (2)
Adjunct to experimental method. Can use naturalistic observation before conducting experimental method to get an idea of the relevant variables in the situation. Once you have an idea about which variables are important, you can conduct systematic, controlled studies of this variable in a lab. After conducting lab experiment, you may return to natural setting to see if insights gained in lab are indeed applied to real life.
Time Sampling
Making observations at different time periods in order to obtain a more representative sampling of the behaviour of interest.
Selection of time periods may be determined randomly or in a more systematic manner.
Use of time sampling may apply to the same or different participants.
Situation Sampling
Observing the same type of behaviour in several different situations.
Two advantages of situation sampling
- Able to determine whether the behaviour in question changes as a function of the context in which you observed. Amount of personal space preference differs from one culture to another or one geographic region to another.
- Researchers likely to observe different participants in the different situations. Ability to generalize any behavioural consistencies has increased.
What major decision do you need to make before you conduct your research project?
Whether to present the results in a qualitative or quantitative manner.
Qualitative Approach
Description of the behaviour in question, a narrative record and conclusions prompted by this description.
Form of written or tape-recorded notes, during or immediately after observing behaviour. Avoid making speculative comments.
Two reasons for using more than one observer
- One observer may miss or overlook the behaviour.
- Disagreement concerning exactly what was seen and how it should be categorized or recorded.
Interobserver Reliability
The extent to which observers agree.
