Articles of Confederation
The first constitution of the United States, established a weak central government to coordinate the war effort & organize the 13 states into a loose political union. The articles proved to make governing & conducting the war difficult.
- lacked a national executive or judicial branch to enforce laws
- congress could not impose federal taxes or regulate commerce domestically & internationally
- problems led to articles being replaced by our current constitution
Backbenchers
MP’s who are neither in the cabinet nor shadow cabinet
Checks & balances
Each department will keep the others in their proper places
- will each have a “will of its own”
- appointments to each branch are kept separately from the other branches
- a system of government that gives each branch of government the power to check the other branches, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful
- house, senate, presidency, judiciary
- executive, legislative, judicial branch
Civic nationalism
Defines national identity in terms of its ideals, especially in terms of democracy, human rights, equality or economic opportunities
Coalition government
If a party leader gets the most votes, but is short of a majority, he or she is given a chance to entice other parties to join a “coalition government” by promising them seats in the cabinet & passage of legislation they support
- in multiple parliamentary systems, formal coalitions between parties to elect a PM are often formed after the election
Confidence motion
Terms of the PM’s can be cut short if they fail to maintain support of a majority of parliament as indicated through a “confidence motion”
- the opposition can propose a “vote of no confidence” and the PM and cabinet are expected to resign and call new elections if they lose
- the governing party may also have an internal “vote of no confidence” to change their party leader, replacing the prime minister with the new head of that party
- the pm might also make a critical bill a “vote of confidence”, forcing new elections should it not pass
Conservative Party
Center right party that was held the prime ministership from 2010 until 2024
- officially the conservative & unionist party, also known as the Tory party (or tories) & it traces its roots back to 1678
Counter-majoritarianism
Concerns over “tyranny of the majority” had meant that the US constitution, like virtually every constitution, includes a number of “counter majority” provisions
- bill of rights : defining areas neither the federal nor since the 14th amendment state governments are allowed to legislate over
- an unelected Supreme Court with lifetime appointments : intended to keep judicial decisions independent from popular passions of the moment
- federalism : the power of the central government to legislate nationally is curtailed by the devolution of power to the 50 states (federal funds can be used to incentivize states to follow national policies)
- a problem with the legitimacy of the institution of judicial review
Cultural nationalism
Argues for a shared national culture, rather than a particular ethnicity or religion
Electoral college
the presidency is determined by electors selected on a state by state basis, with the number of electors determined by the number of senators & representatives a state has
- this tends to be done in a winner takes all manner, except in Maine & Nebraska
- each state has the same number of representatives
Ethnic nationalism
Links American identity to a particular ethnic or religious group, especially those associated with early European settlers in the country
Federalists NO.10
James Madison was concerned about preventing the possibility the “violence of faction” could break the new country apart
- social differences in terms of amount of wealth, sources of wealth, or religion can lead individuals to ally with others in a similar position
- James Madison argued that a large republic is the best way to prevent groups with specific interests from gaining too much power
1. Problem with factions : factions are groups that could harm others or the common good if they get too powerful
2. Solution : large republic , there are many different factions, which makes it harder for any single one to dominate. The diversity of opinions balances power
3. Protecting the common good : by spreading power across a large republic, the government can better protect the interests of everyone, not just the majority or a specific group
Federalists NO.51
James Madison argued to a system of operations of powers in order to preserve liberty
- several independent departments are to be created by the constitution
- house, senate, presidency, judiciary
- each department will keep the others in their proper places -> providing checks & balances
- the structure of the government should prevent any single person or group from dominating, ensuring a balanced and fair system
- Madison acknowledges that people are ambitious & can be tempted to abuse power : by settling up a system where branches of government have to keep each other in check, individual ambitions will protect the overall structure of the government
Filibuster
60 votes supermajority is needed in the 100 member senate to pass certain types of legislation, is not part of the constitution, but rather by senate by laws
- an attempt to to delay or block a vote on a piece of legislation or a confirmation
Fixed-length terms
Usually 4-6 years, a president can be elected for a fixed-length term, with a vice president or other designated official serving out the rest of the term should the president be unable to
Gerrymandering
The redrawing of district lines to favor the political party in power
- manipulate the boundaries (scheming) of an (electoral constituency) so as to favor one party or class
Gridlock
A situation where progress is stalled because opposing sides cannot agree, preventing decisions or actions from being taken
- parliamentary systems are much less likely to suffer gridlock
- PMs always have to maintain a majority, whereas presidents often must work with an opposition-led Congress
Labour Party (UK)
The center left party of prime minister Keir Starmer, which won a clear majority in the July 4, 2024 elections
- founded in 1900, emerging from the organized labor movement as a social democratic alternative to the liberal party
Leader of the opposition
The head of the largest minority party is normally designated the “leader of the opposition” & appoints a “shadow cabinet”
Member of parliament (MP)
The representative in parliament of the people who live in their electoral district
- an elected person who represents the people in a country’s parliament, helping make & vote on laws
- they represent their interests & concerns in the House of Commons
Parliamentary system
Voters elect the legislature. The chief executive is drawn from the legislature.
- head of the executive branch (usually a prime minister) is elected indirectly by the legislature (usually known as parliament)
- public elects their local member of parliament (MP), rather than the prime minister (PM)
Presidential system
Voters elect the legislature & chief executive who is part of the executive branch. The legislature & executive are independent & coequal.
- head of the executive branch, usually a president, directly elected by the voting public
- they serve both as ahead of government (having administrative power) as a head of state (symbolically representing the nation)
- president elected for a fixed length term (4-6) years, with a vice president
- there is a strong separation between executive & legislative branch (usually known as a Congress)
Presidential system : what they do
Elected to fixed 4 year terms, with 1 re election allowed, elected indirectly through an electoral college, head of state and government, can be removed from office early if impeached by 2/3 vote, has power to veto bills (veto can be overridden by 2/3s vote of both houses)
Prime Minister
