KNES 323 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

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1
Q

What do type I and type II alveolar cells do?

A

Type I - highly permeable to gas, allow gas exchange
Type II - secretes surfactant

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2
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

P1V1=P2V2

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3
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A

Movement of air in and out of lungs

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4
Q

Drivers of pulmonary ventilation

A

Air moves down its concentration gradient
Atmospheric pressure
Alveolar Pressure
Intrapleural pressure

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5
Q

PaO2:
Atmospheric
Intra-alveolar (inhale/exhale)
Intrapleural (inhale/exhale)

A

Atmospheric: 760 mmHg
Intra alveolar: 758inh 762exh mmHg
Intrapleural: 754inh 756exh mmHg

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6
Q

Forces causing negative intrapleural pressure

A

Elasticity of lungs pulling inward
Alveolar fluid surface tension pulling inward
Chest wall compliance pulling outward

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7
Q

What is the difference in pleural pressure called?

A

Transmural Pressure

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8
Q

What are the 4 major types of respiratory volumes?

A

Tidal - average air entering and leaving the lungs (quiet breathing)
Inspiratory reserve - forceful deep inspiration above tidal volume
Expiratory reserve - forceful deep expiration above tidal volume
Residual - the air left after max exhale (prevent alveoli from collapsing)

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9
Q

What are the various lung capacities?

A

Total Lung Capacity - sum of all lung volumes (TV, ERV, IRV, and RV)
Vital capacity - air that can be moved in and out of the lungs (TV, ERV, and IRV)
Inspiratory Capacity - max air that can be inspired (TV, IRV)
Functional residual capacity - amount of air remaining in lung after normal breath (ERV, RV)

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10
Q

What makes up respiratory dead space?

A

Alveolar dead space - in alveoli
Anatomical dead space - airways

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11
Q

What is the respiratory center in the brain?

A

Medulla

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12
Q

What do the two parts of the medulla do?

A

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG) - Maintains constant breathing rhythm
- stimulates the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract during inspiration
- No stimulation causes those muscles to relax causing expiration

Ventral respiratory group (VRG) - Involved in forced breathing
- stimulation of accessory muscles involved in forced inspiration or expiration

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13
Q

What helps to stimulate the DRG and VRG?

A

Pons - additional control

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14
Q

How long is a typical inhale vs exhale?

A

Inhale - 2 seconds
Exhale - 3 seconds

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15
Q

Where are the central and peripheral chemoreceptors located?

A

Central - brain and brainstem
Peripheral - carotid bodies and aortic arch

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16
Q

What occurs when there is low levels of dissolved O2 in the blood?

A

Stimulates peripheral chemoreceptors - increase respiratory activity (high altitudes)

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17
Q

What is the hering-breuer reflex?

A

When pulmonary stretch receptor activity decrease inspiratory drive when lungs are inflated

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18
Q

What is dalton’s law?

A

Gases that exert their own pressure, summing to a total pressure of all partial pressures

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19
Q

What is Henry’s Law

A

Concetration of a gas in liquid is proportional to the solubility and partial pressure of that gas

The more soluble the gas, the more it will dissolve into the liquid

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20
Q

When PaO2 ↑ and PaCO2 ↓ what is the effect on the diameter of bronchioles, pulmonary arterioles, and systemic arterioles?

A

Bronchiole - Constrict
Pulmonary arteriole - Dilate
Systemic arteriole - Constrict - slow down blood to allow internal respiration (O2 drop off, CO2 pick up)

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21
Q

When PaO2 ↓ and PaCO2 ↑ what is the effect on the diameter of bronchioles, pulmonary arterioles, and systemic arterioles?

A

Bronchiole - Dilate - increases airflow to bring in more O2 and remove CO2
Pulmonary arteriole - Constrict - slow down blood to allow gas exchange to occur
Systemic arteriole - Dilate

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22
Q

What are the factors that affect the O2-Hb saturation curve?

A

Left shift - increased affinity for O2 for O2
↓ pCO2
↓ H+ (less acidic)
↓ DPG
↓ Temp
Right shift - decreased affinity for O2
↑ pCO2
↑ H+ (more acidic)
↑ DPG
↑ Temp

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23
Q

How is CO2 transported?

A

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) 70%
Dissolved in blood (CO2) 7%
Hemoglobin (23%)

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24
Q

What is the process for the bicarbonate transport of CO2 at the cell and alveoli?

A

Tissue CO2 → Plasma → RBC →
CO2 + H20 → Carbonic anhydrase → H2CO3 dissociates into → HCO3- H+ → Plasma HCO3- + Chloride shift

Plamsa HCO3- + reverse Chloride shift → RBC → HCO3- + H+ → H2CO3 → Carbonic anhydrase → CO2 + H20

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25
What is the Haldane Effect?
The more O2 binds to hemoglobin, the less CO2 it can carry Higher PaCO2 Lower PaO2, higher affinity of CO2 to hemoglobin
26
What is hyperpnea?
Increase volume of air to MEET an O2 demand
27
What is hyperventilation?
Increased ventilation depth and rate INDEPENDENT of cellular O2 needs
28
What is before/after VT1 and after VT2?
Before VT1, ventilation meets are metabolic demands via hyperpnea (below aerobic threshold) After VT1, ventilation no longer meets our metabolic demands, producing more CO2 than O2 we are consuming (above aerobic threshold) Above VT2, anaerobic threshold
29
What does albumin do?
Binding protein to transport lipid soluble hormones Osmotic pressure (pulls water into bloodstream from tissues)
30
What does globulins do?
Alpha and beta - transport stuff - aid albumin in contributing to osmotic pressure Gamma - antibodies
31
What does fibrinogen do?
Clotting
32
What is nitric oxide and where does it come from?
A vasodilator, hemoglobin
33
What does the Hageman factor do?
Kickstarts the clotting cascade (hemostasis)
34
What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic hemostasis?
Extrinsic - shorter, faster, less fibrin intrinsic - longer, slower, more fibrin
35
Where is the primary site of resistance and regulation of blood pressure?
Arterioles
36
Where does perfusion occur?
Capillaries
37
What is different about the 3 types of capillaries?
Continuous - exchange of water and small molecules (blood brain barrier) Fenestrated - exchange of larger molecules, vitamins, urea (small intestine) Sinusoid - largest molecules even cells (liver, spleen, bone marrow, many endocrine glands)
38
What vessel has the characteristics of arterioles and capillaries?
Metarteriole, precapillary sphincters
39
Where is most of the blood stored?
Veins
40
What is the general structure of veins?
Thin walled, large irregular lumen
41
What is bulk flow to and from cells/plasma driven by?
Hydrostatic pressure of blood (primary fluid transport from capillaries to tissue) Osmotic pressure interstitial fluid and blood (draws fluid back into capillaries)
42
What is the net filtration pressure equation?
NFP = (BHP + IFOP) - (BCOP+IFHP) Net filtration pressure Blood hydrostatic pressure Interstitial fluid osmotic pressure Blood colloid osmotic pressure Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure
43
What do the P, QRS, T waves represent?
P wave - depolarization of atria QRS complex - depolarization of ventricles (and repolarizing of atria) T wave - repolarization of ventricles
43
What are the components and their heart rates of the cardiac conduction system?
SA node - 80-100 BPM AV node - 40-60 AV bundle - 30-40 Bundle branches - 20-30 Purkinje fibers - 15-20
44
What does the PR interval represent?
beginning of atrial depolarization to initiation of QRS complex
44
What are the phases of the cardiac cycle?
Late diastole - all chambers are relaxed and ventricles fill passively Atrial systole - atrial contraction forces a small amount of blood into ventricles Isovolumic ventricular contraction - ventricular contraction pushes the AV valves closed, but not enough pressure to open semilunar valves ventricular ejection - ventricular pressure rises and pushes open the SL valves ejecting blood Isovolumic ventricular relaxation - ventricles relax, pressure falls, blood flow backs into cusps of SL valves closing them
45
What is the stroke volume the measure of?
Difference between end diastolic volume and end systolic volume
46
What is the lub and dub?
Lub - closing of AV valves Dub - closing of SL valves
47
What are the 3 main factors that affect stroke volume?
Preload - the amount of stretch of the heart before it contracts (Frank-Starling Law) Contractility - how forceful the ventricles contract Afterload - the pressure needed to be exceeded before blood can be ejected from heart
48
What is the Frank-Starling Law?
The more the muscle fibers of the heart stretch, the stronger the contraction
49
What are the two main factors that affect heart rate?
ANS - Down regulation via Parasympathetic input (ACH lengthens repolarization, decreasing HR) - Up regulation via Sympathetic input (norepinephrine shortens repolarization, increasing HR) Endocrine - Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and thyroid releases thyroid hormones (increases HR) - Increased levels of K+ (decrease HR)
50
If venous blood pressure drops during inspiration what happens to blood flow? Expiration
Promote blood return to right atria Increase blood return to heart because of blood flowing along pressure gradient. (increase preload) Venous and atrial BP reduced, creating greater pressure gradient between these and systemic veins. The opposite occurs during expiration.
50
What happens to thoracic pressure during inspiration/expiration? What happens to blood pressure in thoracic veins?
P1V1 = P2V2 Inspiration - increase of thoracic volume, decrease in thoracic and vein pressure Expiration - decrease in thoracic volume, increase in thoracic and vein pressure
51
What does inhalation and exhalation do to the heart walls?
Inhalation - pulls them outward, facilitating filling Exhalation - pushing them inward, reducing filling
52
What happens to the HR with expiration vs inspiration? What is this called?
Inspiration - increases HR Expiration - decreases HR Respiratory heart rate variability
53
What does respiratory HRV emerge from?
Cardiac vagal neurons Respiratory command center Cardiorespiratory afferents (pulmonary stretch receptors, arterial baroreceptors, etc)
54
What cells create myelin?
Schwann cells (PNS) - neurolemma Oligodendrocytes (CNS) - no neurolemma
55
What is white vs grey matter?
White - bundles of myelinated axons (spine outer | brain inner) Grey - bundles of unmyelinated axons and neurolgia, nerve cell bodies (spine inner | brain outer)
56
What factors affect speed of nerve conduction?
Faster: Myelinated Warm Larger diameter Slower: Unmyelinated Cool Smaller diameter
57
Which neurotransmitters do pre/postganglionic neurons release in the sympathetic nervous system?
Preganglionic (cholinergic) - ACh Postganglionic (mostly adrenergic) - norepinephrine
58
If the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, what do alpha 1, beta 1, beta 2 act on?
Alpha 1 - blood vessels (excitation = constriction) Beta 1 - cardiac muscle fibers (excitation = increase rate and force) Beta 2 - airways (causes inhibition = dilation of airways and vasodilation)
59
What neurotransmitters do pre/postganglionic neurons release in the parasympathetic nervous system?
Preganglionic (cholinergic) - ACh Postganglionic (cholinergic) - ACh
60
What is the length of sympathetic vs parasympathetic pre/postganglionic neurons?
Sympathetic Preganglionic - short Postganglionic - long Parasympathetic Preganglionic - long Postganglionic - short
61
What is BMR?
Minimal we need to meet basic physiological funcitons
62
What are the hormones that the hypothalamus releases? What do those stimulate release of?
CRH → AntP (ACTH) → AdrCortex (glucocorticoids) TRH → AntP (TSH) → Thyroid (T3/T4) GHRH/GHIH → AntP (hGH) → Liver PRF → AntP (PRL) → mammary glands GnRH → AntP (FSH/LH) → Testes/Ovaries PIH (dopamine)
63
What hormones does the posterior pituitary release?
ADH Oxytocin
64
Which pancreas cell releases which hormones?
Alpha cells - glucagon Beta cells - insulin
65
What do the endocrine cells in the wall of the atria release?
ANP to respond to increase blood volume (reduction in blood volume, pressure and Na+
66
When is renin and aldosterone released?
Renin - in response to decreased blood volume or pressure Aldosterone - causes retention of Na and water
67
How do liver cells regulate glucose?
They are GLUT2 when [blood glucose] > [cell glucose], insulin will attach and allow glucose in when [blood glucose] < [cell glucose], glucose will be let out of cell
KNES 323
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