1
Q
How do nature and nurture together shape development?
A
All human characteristics are created through interaction of genes and environment
2
Q
Nurture
A
Environment
3
Q
Nature
A
individuals complete set of hereditary info
4
Q
How do children shape their own development? Newborns:
A
prefer things that move and make sounds; pay particular attention to mothers face
5
Q
How do children shape their own development? Toddlers:
A
internally motivated to learn and practice talking; use self speech
6
Q
How do children shape their own development? Young children
A
engage in internally motivated play, fantasy play, and dramatic play to support their development
7
Q
How do children shape their own development? Older children
A
use more organized, rule bound play to enhance self control and social development
8
Q
Three most important contributions during first years:
A
attentional patterns, use of language, play
9
Q
Discontinuous development:
A
changes with age include occasional large shifts
10
Q
Continuous development:
A
changes with age occur gradually in small increments - skill by skill, task by task
11
Q
is development fundamentally continuous or discontinuous?
A
depends on how you look at it and how often you look
12
Q
how does change occur?
A
interaction of genome and environment determines what and when changes occur
13
Q
How does the sociocultural context influence development?
A
Urie Bronfenbrenner Bioecological Model:
-most important component involves people with whom children interact
- institutions are important
- less tangible factors: historical era, economic structure, cultural beliefs, cultural values
14
Q
cumulative risk:
A
greatest obstacle to poor childrens successful development
15
Q
how do children become so different from another? (Scarr)
A
genetic differences
differences in treatment by parents and others
differences in reactions to similar experiences
different choices of environments
16
Q
how can research promote childrens well being?
A
Anger management programs
More valid child eyewitness testimony
Educational innovations
17
Q
What is the scientific method?
A
choosing a question to be answered
formulating a hypothesis regarding the question
developing a method for testing the hypothesis
using the data to draw a conclusion regarding the hypothesis
18
Q
Reliability?
A
degree to which independent measurements of given behavior are consistent
19
Q
Validity?
A
degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
20
Q
Contexts for gathering data about children
A
Structured interviews
Clinical interviews
Questionnaires
Naturalistic observation
Structured observation
21
Q
structured interviews
A
useful when goal is to collect self reports on the same topics from everyone being studied
22
Q
clinical interviews
A
useful for obtaining in depth information about an individual child
23
Q
questionnaires
A
information gathered simultaneously through uniform set of questions presented to participants
24
Q
naturalistic observation
A
examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher
25
structured observation
method that presents identical situations to each child and records childs behavior
26
What is replicability
degree to which independent measurements of given behaviour in subsequent experiments are consistent with original findings when experiments used same procedure
Reflects degree to which subsequent studies designed to be identical to original experiment yield same results when conducted with different people and at different time
27
Experimental designs
group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn
28
cruical characteristics of experimental designs
random assignment, experimental control
29
Fetal experiences: movement
starts 5-6 weeks after conception
emergence of hiccups/burping/swallowing
movement of limbs, fingers
respiratory readiness
30
Fetal experiences: touch
experiences tactile stimulation as a result of its own activity
sensory apparatus in the inner ear that provides info about movement and balance is also functioning before birth
31
Sight
minimal
predispositions to look toward facelike stimuli
32
smell
aminotic fluid takes on odour from what pregnant parent eats: phylogenetic continuity
33
hearing
sound is a preavlant feature of foetal environment; may stimulate brain development
34
habituation:
simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated continued stimulation
seen at 30 weeks gestation in visual and auditory stimuli
35
dishabituation
introduction of a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation to a repeated stimulus
36
What are hazards to prenatal development?
teratogen
dose response relation
drugs
alcohol
maternal factors
37
teratogen
potentially harmful agent
individual differences in genetic susceptibility
cumulative impact
foetal programming
sleeper effect
38
dose response relation
potential problems depend on how the mother is exposed to the teratogen and for how long
39
Drugs
actuate, antidepressants, opioids, marijuana, nicotine
40
symptoms of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
facial features, intellectual development disorder, attentional challenges, hyperactivity
41
Maternal factors
15 and younger
30-40+
nutrition
disease
emotional state
42
leading cause of fetal brain injury
alcohol use
43
high maternal stress leads to
increased hormone levels, lead to behavior problems, foetal programming
44
experience-expectant plasticity:
the role of general human experience in shaping brain development
45
experience-dependent plasticity
when neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a result of experiences
46
constructivist approach to cognitive development
children construct knowledge for themselves in response to their experiences
47
fundmental assumptions piagets theory
children are mentally active from birth
childrens mental and physical activity contribute to their development
nature and nurture interact to produce cognitive development
48
Childrens constructive processes (piaget)
generating hypotheses
performing experiments
drawing conclusions from their observations
49
central properties (piaget)
qualitative change
broad applicability
brief transitions
invariant sequence
50
main sources of continuity
assimilation
accomodation
equilibration
51
sources of discontinuity
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operational
formal operational
52
What are information processing theories
theories that focus on the structure of cognitive systems and the mental activities used to deploy attention and memory to solve problems
cognitive development arises from childrens gradually surmounting processing limitations
53
what are core knowledge theories
view children as having some innate knowledge in domains of special evolutionary importance
54
domain specific learning mechanisms (core knowledge theories) :
understanding and manipulating other peoples thinking
differentiating between living and non living things
identifying human faces, finding ones way thru space
understanding causes and effects
55
Nativism
infants have a substantial innate knowledge of important evolutionary domains
56
constructivism
infants build increasingly advanced understanding by combining rudimentary innate knowledge with subsequent experiences
57
What are sociocultural theories
emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to childrens development
58
Enduring themes
nature and nurture
the active child
continuity/discontinuity
mechanisms of change
sociocultural context
individual differences
research and childrens welfare
59
Lee Vygotsky three phases of internalized speech
Other people’s statements control children’s behaviour.
Children’s behaviour is controlled by their own private speech, in which they tell themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents might have done earlier.
Behaviour is controlled by internalized private speech (thought), in which they silently tell themselves what to do.
60
Humans have two unique characteristics cruical to complex culture construction
teaching other species
attending and learning from such teaching
61
Visual acuity
sharpness of visual discrimination
simple vs complex patterns
62
fovea
place on retina where vision cells are most concentrated
63
rod cells
sensitive no colour
64
cones
less sensitive register colour (fewer in newborn fovea)
65
preferential looking technique
a method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two images simultaneously to see if they prefer one over the other (indexed by longer looking)
66
contrast sensitivity
Ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern
67
colour perception
2-3 months: infants colour vision approaches level of adults
68
depth perception: optical expansion
when the visual imge of an object increases in size as the object comes towards us, occluding and more in the background
69
depth perception: monocular depth (pictorial clues)
perceptual cues of depth that can be percieved by one eye alone
70
depth perception: binocular disparity
difference between the retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain
71
depth perception: stereopsis
process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals causd by binocular disparity
72
Perceptual narrowing
6 month olds discriminate between human and monkey faces
9 month olds only human face discrimination
73
Auditory development
Hearing is the most advanced of the newborn senses
Newborns can detect sounds if is as loud as quiet conversation
Newborns recognize familiar voices
Absolute sensitivity improves with age
74
Auditory localization
perception of the location in space of a sound source. improves as infant grows
75
Reflexes
Innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
rooting
sucking
tonic neck
grasping
stepping
moro
76
motor milestones
chest up
rolls over
sits with support
stands with support
pulls self to stand
walks
stands alone
walks alone easily
77
Components of language development
generative
phonemes
morphemes
syntax
pragmatics
78
Generative
system in which a finite set of words can be combined to generate an infinite number of sentences
79
Phonemes
smallest units of meaningful sound
80
morphemes
smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes
81
syntax
rules specifying how words from different categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc) can be combined
82
pragmatics
knowledge about how language is used
83
The process of language acquisition
language is acquired by listening and speaking (or watching and singing)
84
categorical perception
infants can discriminate between speech sounds they have never heard before
85
word segmentation
process of discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
begins during second half of the first year
86
distributional properties
in any language, certain sounds are more likely to appear together than others
87
Preparing for production
babbling
early interactions and babbling
successful communication required
88
babbling
Producing syllables made up of a consonant followed by a vowel (pa, ma)
89
early interactions
Social interactions learned from parental infant games
Infant response evokes range of parental response
Signal that infant is attentive is provided
90
successful communication
Intersubjectivity
Joint attention
91
When are first words produced
between 15 and 15 months of age
92
earl world recognition
infant word understanding exceeds word production
93
word learning
Adult influences (talking to children, naming, playing, maintaining spatial consistency)
Contextual influences (words used)
94
cross situational word learning
determining word meanings by tracking correlations between labels and meanings across scenes and contexts
95
syntactic bootstrapping
strategy of using the grammatical structure of whole sentence
96
Chomsky and the nativist view
Noam Chomsky countered Skinner’s behaviourism and proposed humans are born with universal grammar
Proposed set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages
Hard-wired set of rules governing grammar in all languages (nativist)
Many surface differences in languages
Similar underlying structures in all languages
97
Who what?
Children tend to organize categories of objects into category hierarchies
Categories are organized by set - subject relations, such as animal/dog/poodle
98
how do infants categorize objects
colour, size and movement using perceptual categorization
99
superordinate
the general level within a category hierarchy such as animal
100
basic
the middle level and often the first level learned within a category heirarchy such as dog
101
subordinate
the most specific level within a category hierarchy such as poodle
102
Naive psychology
rudimentary understanding of desires, beliefs, and actions
develops really early
a common sense level of understanding of other people and oneself
103
theory of mind
organized understanding of how mental processes such as intentions, desires, beliefs, perceptions and emotions influence behavior
matures over the first 5 years in typical children in typical environments and continues into adolecence
104
false belief problems
tasks that test a child understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs, even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrect
Understanding the connection between other people's desires and their actions emerges by end of the 1st year
105
Understanding biological processes
Preschoolers have an understanding that biological processes are different from psychological processes
They also understand properties of living things crucial for their functions
Inheritance
Essentialism
Growth, illness, and healing
106
Causality: Nativists
Infants possess an innate causal module
This allows them to extract core information from events they observe
107
Empiricists
Infants causal understanding arises from observations of innumerable events in the environment
108
Causality governed by the spatial temporal principles:
cohesion
contact
continuity
109
cohesion
objects move as connected and bounded wholes
110
contact
objects do not interact at a distance
111
continuity
objects move on connected, unobstructed paths
112
Space: nativists
Children possess an innate module specialized for learning about space
This spatial information processing is separate from other types of information
113
Space: Empiricists
Spatial representation results from experience, like other behavior patterns
114
Space both agree that:
Spatial concepts are understood early in life
Self produced movement in the environment stimulates processing of spatial information
Development of the hippocampus brings about this learning
Geometric cues are important in understanding space
115
Representing space relative to oneself
They understand the location of objects relative to their own bodies
Reach for objects closer to themselves
Egocentric spatial representations
116
Representing space relative to the external environment
Landmarks are used to code the location of objects
Development of spatial skills partially dependent on culture
6 month old infants are capable of using landmarks in the environment to code the location of objects (improves with age)
Children have difficulty forming spatial representation in the absence of prominent/obvious landmarks (individual variation throughout life)
Development of spatial skills is partially dependent on culture (difference in rural versus urban)
117
Experiencing time
Sense of time involves knowledge of temporal order: what happened first, what happened next
Order of events has been observed in 3 month olds
Duration of events has been observed in 4 month olds
Infants can discriminate between shorter and longer durations
118
Reasoning about time
Logical inferences about time have been observed in 5 year olds
119
Number: nativists
Children are born with a core concept of numbers.
A special mechanism is present for learning about the numbers of objects in sets, counting, addition, and subtraction.
Brain areas: Intraparietal sulcus is involved
120
Number: empiricists
Children learn about numbers through experiences.
Large differences in numerical understanding among children from different cultures
121
Numerical equality
realization that all sets of N objects have something in common across modalities
122
two number systems
Small sets: 1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, 1 vs 3 (faster, accurate, and younger)
Many and beyond. Ratio objects: 8 vs 16 (1:2) - accuracy in discrimination develops with time
123
in preschool, children begin to acquire the five counting principles
one-one correspondence
stable order
cardinality
order irrelevance
abstractions
124
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