1
Q
Inductive Hypothesis
A
-From specific observations moving towards generalizations
2
Q
Deductive Hypothesis
A
-Based on theory and anticipate certain outcomes
3
Q
Directional hypothesis
A
ONE TAILED
-Specifies existence but expected direction of relationship
EX: Older pts are more at risk of falling than younger pts
4
Q
Non-directional hypothesis
A
TWO TAILED
-Based on theory and anticipate certain outcomes
EX: There is a relationship between the age of a pt and the risk of falling
5
Q
What are the two different research methods?
A
Qualitative and Quantitative
6
Q
Experimental, Quasi-experimental, single-subject/case, survey, and psychometrics are all examples of what?
A
Research design
7
Q
What are the two purposes of research?
A
Basic and Applied
8
Q
What are two important aspects of quantitative research?
A
- Emphasis on objectivity
2. Generalizability to larger populations
9
Q
What are the five characteristics of research?
A
- Rigor
- Skepticism
- Empiricism
- Logic
- Communality
10
Q
Which three things does a quantitative study need?
A
Manipulation
Control
Randomization
11
Q
Name five different controls
A
Alternative Intervention Placebo Standard methods of care Different doses/intensities Wait-list
12
Q
Randomization can occur in two ways. Name them.
A
- Random sample
2. Random assignment
13
Q
Identify:
R X O1
R O1
A
Basic Post-test only design
14
Q
What is a basic post-test design typically used for?
A
Comparing different outcomes
Common in pilot studies
15
Q
Identify:
R O1 X O2 O3
R O1 O2 O3
A
Basic pre and post test design with follow up test
16
Q
Identify:
R) 01 XA O2
R) 01 XB O2
R) O1 O2
A
Multiple interventions
17
Q
Identify:
R) O1 X O2 O3
R) O1 O2 X O3
A
Waitlist or delayed tx.
18
Q
Identify: and when is this useful?
R) O1 XA O2 XB O3
R) O1 XB O2 XA 03
A
Cross over design(Useful when recruitment is difficult)
19
Q
How many phases are in a full clinical trial?
A
4
20
Q
Truncation
A
Broadens search to include multiple forms of a word
21
Q
Which phase does this belong?
Small scale studies using simple designs
A
Phase 1
22
Q
What are effective search strategies?
A
- Transform concepts into words
- Identify relationships between words
- Format appropriately for the search
23
Q
Products of Lit Reviews
A
Introduction/BackgroundNarrative review on a topic
Scoping review
Systematic review or meta-analysis
24
Q
SEARCH Process: WHAT?
A
- Identify one’s info needs
2. Be clear about what to retrieve for translation
25
PICO
P: population/problem
I: intervention
C: comparison
O: outcomes
26
SEARCH Process: HOW
1. Articulate/expand topic with synonyms
2. Generate search query defining logical relationships between search terms
3. Analyze info content to evaluate how well it corresponds to intended topic
27
Boolean AND/OR/NOT
AND: Match specific text of both search terms
OR: Match specific text of either search term
NOT: Match only specific text of one of search term
28
What's nesting?
Allows Boolean search terms to be combined with each other in a search queryi.e. ((cats OR dogs) AND pets) AND health
29
Truncation
Broadens search to include multiple forms of a word
30
In which phase does this belong?Designed for safety and tolerance/optimal dose
Phase 1
31
In which phase does this belong?Preliminary evidence of treatment
Phase 2
32
In which phase does this belong?Assess feasibility of launching rigorous test
Phase 2
33
In which phase does this belong?Pilot test of treatment
PHase 2
34
In which phase does this belong?Full test of treatment
Phase 3
35
In which phase does this belong?RCT standard design used
Phase 3
36
In which phase does this belong?Develop evidence about tx. efficacy
Phase 3
37
In which phase does this belong?Effectiveness of intervention on general population
Phase 4
38
In which phase does this belong?Focus on post-approval safety surveillance
Phase 4
39
In which phase does this belong?Focus on long-term consequences over larger population
Phase 4
40
Proximity
Specifying relationship of terms by their nearness to each other in text of info item
41
Goals of a Lit Review
1. Have thorough understanding of topic
2. Convey the breadth of a field as context for your work
3. Create new knowledge through comparison and analysis of existing studies
42
Products of Lit Reviews
Introduction/BackgroundNarrative review on a topic
Scoping review
Systematic review or meta-analysis
43
Which non-experimental research design?phenomenon existed in present is linked to past,begins with dependent variable and examines relationship with independent variable
RetrospectiveExample: Increased risk of death with chemical exposureLook at some dead, and some not factory workers and look back to see exposure rates correlate with deaths
44
Which non-experimental research design?Start with presumed cause and then go forward to presumed effectConsidered stronger than retrospective designs
ProspectiveExample: Looking for cancer in Nurses
| They collected BMI data on non-cancered nurses and compared to see if a larger BMI is correlated with cancer
45
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
When participants change their behavior because they are aware people are watching.
46
What are three strengths to experimental design?
1. Strongest evidence for intervention effects
2. Least bias
3. Causal relationships
47
Identify:
O1 X O2
01 X02
Non-equivalent control group pre-post test
48
How to formulate a search strategy
1. Start broad --> narrow
2. Keep concepts separate
3. Mix of keywords and subject headings
4. Boolean operators to combine concepts
5. Employ limits and filters
49
Keywords
1. Everyday language terms for: new/rare terminology Spelling variations
2. Searches: title/abstract/article/journal title
50
Subject Headings
- Term assigned to provide consistency when searching CINAHL/PubMed MeSH-Organized into heirarchy
- Searches: only in subject field
51
Identify:
| X O1 O1
Post Test
52
Identify:
| O1 X O2
One group pre-post test
53
Identify:
| O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
Time series
54
Identify:
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6
Time series nonequivalent control groups
55
Name 2 weaknesses of a quasi-experimental design
1. cause and effect inferences are less compelling
| 2. Considered weaker designs
56
Name 2 strengths of a quasi-experimental design
1. More practical for clinical settings
| 2. More acceptable to participants
57
Relationship, association, are words associated with which non-experimental design?
Correlational
58
Which non-experimental research design?
phenomenon existed in present is linked to past,begins with dependent variable and examines relationship with independent variable
Retrospective
59
Which non-experimental research design?
Data on both variables collected at one point in time
Not considered a design, but a method of data collectioni
Cross-sectional
60
Which non-experimental research design?
Start with presumed cause and then go forward to presumed effect
Considered stronger than retrospective designs
Prospective
61
Which non-experimental research design?
Observe, describe, and document aspects of naturally occurring incidences
Starting point for hypothesis generation
Two different types: Univariate and correlational
Descriptive nonexperimental research
62
Incidence and Prevelance studies are considered which kind of descriptive research?
Univariate
63
_______ is proportion of total population who have a particular health related condition
Prevalence
64
_______ is how many persons have onset of a conditon over a given time span
Incidence
65
Name three weaknesses of correlational research?
Considered the weakest research design
No causal inferences can be made
Selection Bias (selecting a population that isn't a true representation)
66
Name three strengths of correlational research design
Efficient way to collect large amounts of data
| Plays a role in developing evidence for casual inference laterstrong in realism
67
Which qualitative design does this describe?
Involves description and interpretation of cultural behavior seek to understand the member's world view
Extensive fieldwork
Ethnography
68
Which qualitative design does this describe?
To understand people's everyday lived experienceuseful when a phenomenon has been poorly defined or conceptualized
In-depth conversation with informants to gain access to their world and lived experiences
Reflexive journal
Phenonmenology
69
Which qualitative design does this describe?
Seeks to discover the main concern and basic social process of how people resolve that concern
Develop a theory to explain a basic social process grounded in data
In-depth interviews and observations are used and categorized
Grounded theory
70
Which qualitative design does this describe?
Systematic collection, critical evaluation and interpretation of historical evidence
Historical Research
71
Which qualitative design does this describe?
The story is the focus of inquiry
Narrative Analysis
72
Which qualitative design does this describe?
Integrate theory and practice such that people become aware of contradictions and disparities in their beliefs an social practice
Critical Theory
73
Which qualitative design does this describe?
Researchers and participants collaborate in research process
Aim is to produce action AND knowledge and counsciousness raising
Participatory Action Research
74
in a remote Aboriginal Australian community is the work to support a men's self help group to plan, implement, and evaluate their activities. With support from the research team community members are acting as researchers exploring priority issues affecting their lives, recognising their resources, producing knowledge, and taking action to improve their situation. The ongoing process of reflection and action, which incorporates participant observation, informal discussions, in‐depth interviews, and a “feedback box”, is viewed by the participants as contributing to their self reported increased sense of self awareness, self confidence, and hope for the future.
Participatory Action Research
75
The teacher shows the students a series of slides of artists' works. After each slide, the teacher asks: "Simply from looking at the slide, can you predict if this is the work of a male artist, a female artist, or is this an impossible task?" The students write their responses and write a brief explanation regarding their decision. Often, the students will predict the gender of the artist. The teacher then encourages the students to identify what element(s) of the work influenced their decision. The teacher can relate this discussion to common stereotypes relating to gender roles (i.e. only females paint with pink, only males draw dark or ominous scenes).The teacher encourages students to identify their own biases regarding gender role expectations as they relate to artistic expression.
Critical theory
76
in my study, the main concern of learners is finding the time to study and temporal integration is the core category which explains how the concern is resolved or processed. That is: Jugglers and Strugglers employ successful temporal integration strategies enabling them to study whilst Fade-aways and Leavers are less successful in devising and adopting temporal integration strategies. Understanding how temporal integration does or does not happen has implications for learning design and learner persistence.
Grounded Theory
77
Ethan is a psychologist who is interested in studying how families of autistic children cope with the difficult news that their child has autism. Do they feel angry? Scared? Do they turn to family for support or to medical professionals? Do they seek out parents of other autistic children to help them through it?
Phenomenology
78
What is "N"?
N=population
| -Entire aggregation of cases the researcher is interested
79
What is "n"?
n=subset of population
80
What are 2 key considerations of a representative sample?
1. Representativeness
| 2. Size
81
Describe eligibility criteria
- Specifies population characteristics
- Cost
- Practical constraints
- People's ability to participate
- Design considerations
82
Probability Sampling
- Random sampling
| - Estimates probability that an element will be included in sample
83
Non-probability Sampling
- Elements selected by non-random methods
| - No way to estimate the probability each element will be included in sample
84
Convenience Sampling
Non-probability Sampling
| -Using those who are the most available as participants
85
Snowball Sampling
Non-probability Sampling
| -Network or chain sampling by referral
86
Consecutive Sampling
Non-probability Sampling
| -Recruiting all from accessible population over specified time/size
87
Purposive Sampling
Non-probability Sampling
| -Researcher uses knowledge about population to select sample
88
Simple Random Sampling
Probability Sampling
| -Establishing a sampling frame-Using random numbers to draw sample
89
Stratified Random Sampling
Probability Sampling
- Subdivide population into homogenous subsets then randomly select sample
- Proportionate vs. disproportionate
90
Multistage Cluster Sampling
Probability Sampling
| -Selecting broad groups in stages then randomly selecting sample
91
Systematic Sampling
Probability Sampling
-Selecting every kth case from a list
-Sampling interva
l-Need a large population size to pick from
92
Sampling Bias
- Systematic over-representation or under representation of population segment
- Based on population's homogeneity
93
Sampling Error
-Difference between population values and samples values
94
What are the steps in sampling quantitative studies?
1. Identify the population
2. Specify eligibility criteria
3. Specify sampling plan: Methods of drawing sample and Power analysis
4. Recruit the sample
95
Describe structured self-reports in data collection
1. Interview schedule: Face-to-face/telephone
| 2. Questionnaire the respondents complete themselves
96
What types of questions can you ask in self-reports?
- Open ended questions: limit how many because ppl are less likely to respond
- Close ended questions: -Dichotomous -Multiple choice -Rank order -Forced choice -Rating -Visual Analog
97
What are the differences between using questionnaires versus interviews?
Questionnaires:
1. Cost
2. Anonymity
3. Interview bias
Interviews
1. Response rate
2. Audience
3. Clarity
4. Depth of questioning
5. Missing info
6. Order of questions
7. Sample control
8. Supplementary data
98
What's response bias?
- Social desirability
- Extreme response
- Acquiescence response: agreeing because its easier
99
What are structured observations?
-Documentation of specific behaviors, actions, events using formal instruments and protocols
100
What are the two ways that statistics are used?
1. Descriptive (describes the sample)
| 2. Inferential (outcome variables)
101
This variable is ________ (discrete or continuous)
Takes on a finite range of values (ex: # of children in household)
Discrete
102
Is this a discrete or continuous variable?
Also known as categorical variable
Discrete
103
Is this a discrete or continuous variable?
Used with nominal or ordinal scales
Discrete
104
Is this a discrete or continuous variable?
Takes on infinite range of values along specified continuum (Ex:Age)
Continuous
105
Is this a discrete or continuous variable?
Used with interval and ratio scales
Continuous
106
T/F Continuous variables and discrete variables can be converted into each other
False. Continuous variables can be turned into discrete variables, but not vice versa
107
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?Lowest level of measurement
Nominal
108
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
Specify rank ordering on variable and assume equivalent distance
Interval
109
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
Mutually exclusive
Nominal
110
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
Attributes are ordered
Ordinal
111
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
Highest level of measurement
Ratio
112
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
Addresses ordering, intervals and absolute magnitude
Ratio
113
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
Does not tell measureable differences between levelsf
Ordinal
114
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
No real absolute magnitude
Interval
115
Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?
0 means a true absense
Ratio
116
Parametric vs non parametric
Distribution free
non parametric
117
Parametric vs non parametric
Considered less robust
non-parametric
118
Parametric vs non parametric
Easier interpretation
non-parametric
119
Parametric vs non parametric
Unable to interpret multivariates
non-parametric
120
Parametric vs non parametric
normal distribution
parametric
121
Parametric vs non parametric
Considered more powerful
parametric
122
Parametric vs non parametric
Can study multiple variables
parametric
123
Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?
One DV, One IV
Univariate
124
Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?
multiple DVs
multivariate
125
Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?
One DV, multiple IVs
Multi variable
126
Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?
One DV, two IVs, or DVs and One IV
Bivariate
127
Name four nonparametric statistics
1. Chi-square
2. Mann-Whitney
3. Kruskal-Wallis
4. Friedman
128
All of the non parametric tests are between-subjects except_______
Friedman
| Between-Subjects
129
non-parametric test compares an actual number or frequency of a group to the expected number or frequency nominal data
Between group design
Chi-Squre
130
This nonparametric test compares two groups. It is between group design and uses ordinal data
Mann-Whitney
131
This research question indicates which statistical test?
"Is there a difference in breast self examination based on education level?"
Mann-Whitney
132
This non-parametric test compares more than two groups. It is a between group design and uses ordinal level data
Kruskal-Wallis
133
This research question indicates which statistical test?
Is there a difference in the medians for change in number of days of having cold symptoms among those who take placebo pill, low vitamin C, and high vitamin C?
Kruskal-Wallis(between groups, ordinal data, more than 2 groups)
134
Nonparametric test
Within groups design 1 group measured on 3+ occasions
Ordinal Level data
Friedman
135
Which nonparametric test is for nominal data?
Chi-Square
136
Which nonparametric tests are for ordinal data
Mann-Whitney
Kruskal-Wallis
Friedman
137
Which research test does this indicate?
Is there a statistically significant difference in perceived sense of well-being survey scores for individuals with clinical depression move from city to rural areas (collected prior to move, 3 months post move, and 6 months post move)
Friedman
138
What are the two types of t-tests?
1. Paired (within groups)
| 2. Unpaired (between group)
139
Which research test is indicated?
Is there a difference between treatment and control group in relation to age?
Unpaired t test (independent t-tests)
```
Why?
continuous data (age)Between subjects
```
140
Which test is indicated?
Is there a difference in mean score of knowledge of breast examination from pre-test to post test?
Paired t-test (dependent t test)
Why?Continuous data (mean score)Within subject with pre and post test
141
When is an ANOVA used?
When comparing three or more group means
142
What is the statistic computed by ANOVA tests?
F-ratio
143
Which ANOVA test?
Examines difference between group means of 3+ groups with only one test1 IV (categorical) 1 DV(continuous) 3 categories of IV
One-way ANOVA
144
Which test is indicated?
What is the effect of therapist intervention, compared to nicotine patch and no treatment on number of cigarettes smoked daily?
One-way ANOVA
Why?
1 categorical IV (Type of therapy)1 Continuous DV (Number of cigs smoked)
145
Which ANOVA?
Examines difference between 2 IVs (with 2+ categories each), and one DV(continuous)
Compares each IV with each DV
2 way ANOVAfactorial ANOVA or multifactoral ANOVA
146
Which test is indicated?
Are counseling, compared to nicotine patch and no treatment equally effective on number of cigs smoked daily for men and women?
2 way ANOVA
147
Which ANOVA?
| Measurements taken at more than 2 time points3+ measures for DVDV is continuous
Repeated measures ANOVA
148
Which test is indicated?
What is the difference in depression level of clients recieving mental health services by participating in group therapy sessions at pre test, 6 months and 1 year?
Repeated measures ANOVA
149
Which test?
| Purpose is to equalize differences between groups by controlling for potentially confounding variables (covariate)
ANCOVA
150
Which test is indicated?
What is the effect of training on the running speed of adolescents who do or do not work out regularly?
ANCOVA
why?
Removes the gender factorIV- trainingDV-running speedCovariate-gender
151
Which test?
| When 2+ DVs that correlate with each other are compared to 1+ IV
MANOVA
152
Which test is indicated?
What is the effect of different interventions (desensitization, relaxation therapy, wait-list control) on several types of anxiety (measures with 4 subscales on an anxiety measure)?
MANOVA
why?
DV: 4 subscales of the same testIV: desensitize, relax, control
153
Which test?
When 2+ DVs that correlate with each other are compared to 1+ IV
Controls for confounding variables (covariates)
MANCOVA
154
Which test is indicated?
What is the effect of different interventions (sensitive, relax, cotnrol) on several types of anxiety (measured 4 subscales of anxiety measure) after controlling for age and marital status?
MANCOVA
why?
DV: 4 subscales of the same testIV: desensitize, relax, control
Covariate: marital status, age
155
Which test?
A statistical procedure designed to test the relationship or prediction between 2+ IVs and 1 DV
Multiple Regression
156
Overall fit (R)
Multiple linear Regression
157
In vivo
Directly in or on living organism
158
In vitro
Extracting material from people and submitting to lab
159
Test-retest reliability
Redo a test and get same results
160
Internal consistency - reliability
Are subscales measuring the traits consistently
161
Construct validity
Ability to measure vague concept well
| EX: Love, how do you measure that?
162
Descriptive statistics
Describe the sample (demographic tables)
163
Inferential statistics
Make generalizations about the population from data collected
164
Discrete variables
Categorical variables
| Nominal and ordinal
165
Continuous variables
Interval and ratio
166
Nominal scale
- Lowest level of measurement
- Mutually exclusive
- No quantitative meaning
EX: African American/Caucasian or Men/Women
167
Ordinal Scale
- Next level up from nominal
- Attributes are ordered
- Doesn't tell measurable differences between levels
EX: FIM, no TRUE quantitative differences
168
Interval
- Specify rank ordering on variable and assume equivalent distance
- No real absolute magnitude
EX: age, temp
169
Ratio
- Highest level of measurement
- Addresses ordering, intervals, and absolute magnitude
- 0 is true absence
EX: money
170
Correlation
- The extent to which 2 variables are related to one another
- doesn't mean causation
- Pearson product moment correlation "r" for interval/ratio
- Spearmans RHO used for ordinal data
- Scattergrams
171
Absolute risk
-Proportion of ppl who experience an undesirable outcome in intervention and control groups
172
Relative risk
-Estimated proportion of an adverse outcome
173
Odds Ratio
-Proportion of ppl with adverse outcome relative to those without it
174
Null hypothesis
-No significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
175
Type 1 error
- Rejection of null hypothesis that is actually true
- Researcher says there is a difference but there isn't
- "False positive"
176
Type 2 error
- DO NOT reject a null hypothesis that is false
- Researcher says there is no difference but there actually is
- False negative
177
Multivariate
2 or more dependent or outcome variables
178
Multivariable
multiple independent or response variables
