1
Q
Learning (3 general types)
A
Any relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of practice or experience. Changes due to growth and maturation are not learning
3 General Types of Learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Cognitive learning
2
Q
Behavioural Psychology- what is it
A
the study of external behavior
Behavior that is observable and objective
Behavior is the response of an organism to stimuli
Classical conditioning is based in Behaviorism
People (and animals) acquire certain behaviors through classical conditioning
Learning process in which associations are made between an unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus
The work of Ivan Pavlov
3
Q
Behaviorism Theorists
A
Pavlolv
- Russian psychologist, first describes classical conditioning which conduction research into the digestive system of dogs
- interested in the role of salivary secretions in the digestion of food- warded the Nobel Prize for Medicine of Physiology
- Pavlov abserved that the dogs salivated not only at the sight of food, but also at sight or sound of lab tech preparing food
- pavlov was fascinated by the unintentional observations –> conductied further expirments
- his sibsequent expirments provided evidence of a form of learning based on the repeated associated of different stimuli- called classical conditioning
4
Q
Classical conditioning
A
- form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli
- learning occurs when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce
- in classical conditioning, a response is automatically produces when one stimulus becomes associated, or linked, with another stimulus that would not normally produce this response
explains some leanring of involuntary eomotional physiological responses
5
Q
Pavlov’s resaerch
A
Stimuli based on Pavlov’s Expirment
(US) Unconditioned Stimulus
- food–> elicits a response without training
(UR) Unconditioned Response- saliva
(NS) Neutral Stimulus- bell
- intiially it does not elicit a response
(CS) Conditioned Response- salivate to bell
- the learned reaction (salivation)
6
Q
Factors in Classical Conditioning
A
- Number of pairings of CS and US
- Intensity of US
- How reliably CS predicts US
- Temproal relationship between CS and US
7
Q
Stimulus Generalisation and Discriminiation
A
Stimulus Generalisation
- pavlov observed that his dogs salivated to toher noises that sounded like a bell
- the tendency of another stimulus to prodice a response similar to the CR
- the greater the similarity between stimuli the greater the possibility that a generlisation will occur
- bell sounded similar to doorbell –> generalisation occured
- however the amount of saliva produced would be less than the original stimulus
8
Q
Extinction
A
- A conditioned stimulus-response association can fade over time or dissapear althogether
– Ex pavlovs dogs eventually ceased salivating (CR) in response to the bell (CS) presented alone after several trials in which the food (UCS) did not follow the sound of the bell
9
Q
Watson’s research
A
Little Albert
- 11-moth-old infant known as little Albert
- developed a conditioned response through the following experiemnts
- White rat (NS) + loud bang (UCS) –> startle response (CR)
Conditioned Emotional Responses
- Conditioned baby Albert to fear white rat (and other things that were white and fluffy)
- little albert learned to fear things that resembled white rat (generalisation)
10
Q
Classical Conditioning on the Brain- Adaptive value of Classical Conditioning – Taste Aversion; Chemotherapy
A
Usefulness of certin traits that have evolved in animals and human and tend to increase their chances of survival
Biological predisposition
- genetics or biologically based moivation
- may prepare animals to acquire or resist classically conditioned reponses
- Humans fear stimuli that can harm
Adaptive value:
- taste-aversion learning: associating a particular sensory cue with getting sick & therefore avoiding that sensory cue in the future
- ex: rats & posion bait, avoiding drink after getting sick
11
Q
Classical Conditioning in life- Fear Response; Drug Use; Advertising
A
Fear Response
- fears and phobias largely result from classical conditioning
- Ex: dental phobia, can generalize anxiety with dental chair, waiting room, dentist’s office/building and external stimuli
Drug Use
- classical conditioning helps explain whycertain environemtnal cues or social situations can lead to continues drug use
- environemtnal cues associated with drug use can become CS
- can produce CR of drug craving
- need higher doeses for effects
Advertising
- relatively new and nuetral product is paired with an image of an attractive and popular celebrity, objects, or situation that is liked
- we become conditioned to buy products
12
Q
Systematic Desensitization
A
- form of counter conditioning
- non-medical therapy for relief and anxiety
- very effective
- based on classical conditioning, a person visualizes or imagines a very fearful or anxiety-provoking stimuli and immideiately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxiety (almost like exposure therapy)
13
Q
Behavior Psychology
A
- study of “external” behavior
- behavior is objective and observable
- behavior is a response of an organism to stimuli
- behavior can be controlled by the consequence
-the type of behavior that follows is either- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
14
Q
Thorndike’s research- Law of Effect, Theory of Learning, Connectionism
A
- thought to be the real father of behaviorism
- inspired by Pavlov and Skinner
Law of Effect
behavior that leads to a reward, is learned
beahvior that leads to a perceived punishment, is not learned
Theory of Learning, Connectionism
- dominated the united states educational system for years
- learning involved in association between a stimulus and response
- reward stamping in the connection, associating a behavior with its consequences
- learning occurs when an individual realizes that one event leads to another
15
Q
Operant conditioning
A
- is associated with behaviorism
- a type of learning where behavior is either strengthened with reward or diminished with consequence
- consequence depends on action
- getting good grades depends on studying
16
Q
Differences between classical and operant conditioning
A
- both use acquisition, discrimination, stimulus-response, generalization and exctinction
17
Q
Skinner’s research
- positive and negative reinforcment
- primary and conditioned reinforcers
- psitive and negative punishment
- schedules of reinforcment- continuous and partial
A
- designed Skinner box
- ultimate motivator–> reinforcment
Shaping
- he used it as a technique to teach rats a complicated task
- rat was rewarded for each response that is closer to the desired beahviour
- press lever for food
Reinforcment- Positive and Negative
- skinner developed two types:
1. positive reinforcment: strengthens a response by presenting a desirble stimuli
2. negative reinforcment
- strengthens a response by reducing or removing something undesirable or unpleasant
Reinforcers- Primary and Conditioned
- skinner also developed two types of reinforcers
1. Primary reinforcer
- innate stimulus, satisfying biological innate neet
2. Conditioned (seondary) reinforcer
- a stimuli that is learned to be positive; associated with primary reinforcer
Punishment- Positive and Negative
- skinner also used the term punishment as:
- any outcome that wekens/diminishes the probability of a response
- like reinforcment must be administered quickly after the behaviour for best results
- adding something to influence behaviour (positive) or taking something away to influence behaviour (negative)
18
Q
Skinners research: Schedules of reinforcment
A
Continuous and Partial
- refers to the pattern of delivering reinforcers
- Continuous: reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs
- Partial: reinforcing the desired response only part of the time it occurs
- the acquisistion of the desired response is greater- the possibility of extinction is slower/greater resisitance to extinction
Fixed and Variable ratio
- fixed ratio: reinforcment after a specific number or responses
- variable ratio: reinforcment after an average number of responses
Fixed and variable interval
- fixed interval: reinforcment adter a specific amount of time
- reinforcment after an average amount of time
19
Q
why do we seek reinforcment?
- role of nucleus accumbens and dopamine
A
- nuclues accumbens is active during processing of rewards both natural and artifical
- Dopamine released when behavior is rewarded
- people that have risky behaviours (gambling, substance abuse etc.) are more liekly to have genes that code for dopamine and other reward chemicals
- release more dopamine and have troub;e removing dopamine from the stynapses
20
Q
Cognitive perspective on learning
- cognitive learning
1. latent learning
2. observational learning
A
- learning may not result only from autonomic association, but also from mental processes
2 basic types of cognitive learning:
- 1. latent learning
- observing and then demonstrating later in the future (quizzes and tests)
2. observational learning
- changes in behaviour and knowledge that results from watching others experience
21
Q
latent learning
- Tolman & Honzik’s research
- S-O-R theory of learning
A
S-O-R
- refers to learning that is not directly observable
- competence vs. preformance
- learning is not immediately expressed until the organism ia reiforced for doing so
- implies that reinforcment is not neccesary for learning
Tolman & Honzik
- proposed that humans (and other animals display latent learning)
- rats in the maze, run through 10 times
1st group: rewarded every time they found the route out
2nd group: rewarded only after the 10th time they found the route out
3rd group: never rewarded - 2nd group preformed as well only after they received reward
- demonstrated their knowledge when they received reinforcment
- rats could learn a maze without reinforcment
22
Q
Bandura’s research
- social learning theory
A
four processes
1. Attention to the act or behaviour
- seeing someone react with classifcally conditioned fear to snakes can result in acquiring a similar fear
- Memory of the act or behaviour
- there is often a delay from when we learn a new behaviour and when the need to preform is arises
- watch a cooking show: but not able to repeat the step until dinner time - Ability to reproduce behaviour
- observational learning is best when we first observe, practice immediately and continue practicing soon after acquiring the response
- helps to observe others in the process of learning
- helps to see a model making a mistake so that we can reflect on our own - Motivation to reproduce act or behaviour
- being hungry or thirsty makes it more likely to observe where others are going to get food or drink
- if a student has no interest in playing the piano, less likely to observe teacher during lessons
23
Q
Bobo doll expirmental design
A
72 children
- 24 agressive role model, 24 non-aggresive role model, 24 control group: no model
- children exposed to the aggresive model were more likely to act in physically aggresive ways than those not exposed to the aggresive model (boys averages more than girls)
- children more influenced by same sex dolls
24
Q
Media Violence and Real-World Vioelnce
A
- media impacts real-world aggresion in some cases
- consistent link between violent games and violent behavior
25
Imitation and mirror neurons
- children imitate facial expressions
- humans- over imitate other humans
role of mirror neurons
- become activated when an animal observes or preforms an action
- may play a role in observational learning and having empathy for others
26
Learning and memory
- learning is acquiring new information
- memory refers to the persistence of learning in a state that can be revealed at a later time
Memory:
- encodes, stores, and retreives information
- defines as "the retention of information"
- not static and can change over time
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Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
- synaptic changes
- long-term potentiation
Synaptic changes
- neural basis for change in the braind during memory storage is in the synapses
- memories begin as impulses travelling through the brain circuits, leaving at semi-permanent trace
- the more memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has (long-term potentiation)
Long term potentiation
- gradual strenthening of the connections or nueronal pathways among neurons from repition and stimulation
- long lasting efficiency of neural transmission at synapses
- basis for learning and memory at neuronal level
- common in hippocampus
plays a key role in forming memories
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Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
- Donald Hebb
- Hippocampus and Amygdala
Donald Hebb
- Neuroscience- Brain and beahviour
- exmained how the cells in the barin change over the course of learning
- brain cell consistently stimulates another cell --> metabolic and physical changes occur to strengthen the connection or neuronal pathway
- memory --> activity occuring at the cellular level
- "neurons that fire together wire together"
Hippocampus and Amygdala
- two parts of the brain are involved in memory- both in midbrain
Hippocampus: helps recall events themselves
- involved in a process called consaolidation
- information in the working memory is dreadually changed over to long term memories
- memories are date/time stamped by hippocampus
Amygdala: helps recall emotions accosiated with memories/events:
- amygdala plays a role in strengthening memories that have a strong emotional connection
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Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory
- Hormones and Memory
- Biology of Memory Deterioration
Hormones and Memory:
- strong memories fueled by emotion
- emotional arousal= release of norepiniphrene and epiniphriene
- cortisol= excess interferes with memories
- estrogen = imrpoves working memory
Biology of Memory Deterioration
- usually begin to show some declines after age 65 (but not always)
- Alzheimer's is the most common cause fo dementia
- show memeory and language losses consistent with corticol loss
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Multistore Model - 3 types of memory (just name the three types of memory)
Information flows through three processing units
1. Sensory memory
2. Short term memory
3. Long term memory
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Sensory memory
- iconic and Echoic sensory memory
- Sperling's research
Sensory store:
- holds raw information from senses
- the shortest memory, info enters and is held for a brief time
iconic and echoic sensory memory
- Iconic: memory for visual stimuli, lasts about 1 second
- Echoic: memory for visual stimuli, last 5-10 seconds
- sensory memory holds the greatest amount onf information, far more than ever reaches concious awareness
- the control process of attention slects which information passes on to STM
Sperling's test:
- Sperling flashed a group of letters for 1/20 of a second
- people could only recall half of the letters
- people could recall a particular row with near exact accuracy immidately after the row dissapeared
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short term memory
- decay and interference
- retractive and proactive interference
- memort system that reatins informationfor limited durations
- very brief- 5-20 secs
- STM in adults is usaly 7 peices of information
- rehearsal extens the duration of STM info
- thinking is the organization of a lrage body of information itno smaller, more meaningfu groups
decay and interference:
- we lose info due to decay, and interference
1. decay- fades over time
2. interference- loss of information due to competition with other information
- retroactive interference= happens when learning new information hampers something that was previously learned
- proactive interference= inteference happens when eariler learning occupies memory space and gets in the way of learning something new
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long term memory
- Declarative memory (explicit memory)
- episodic and semantic
- Non-declarative memory (implicit memory)
- Procedural (motor skills, habits)
- priming (simple, classically conditioned response)
- relatively induring store of information
- includes facts, experiences, or skills that we've developed over time
- may last decades or a lifetime (perma-store)
- long-term memory errors tend to be semantic (meaning-related) wheras short-term memory errors tend to be acoustic
Declarative memory (explicit memory):
- includes memories that are concious or intentionally remembered
divided into 2 subparts=
1. Episodic memory: stores memories or personally experiences events
2. Semantic memory: stores facts and information
Non-declarative memory (implicit memory)
- includes memories thare uncicnious or automatic, and are not intentional
divided into two parts:
1. Procedural memory: -how to do things, such as motor skills, habits -- brushing teeth, singing a familar song
2. Priming: an individual's response to stimuli influences their subsequent response to stimulus without being aware of the connection -- simple clasical conditioned response
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Working memory- Phonological loop; visuospatial sketchpad; episodic buffer; central executive
- term "working memory" allows individual to "work" with memory
- mental workspace in which an individual carries out cognitive operation and stores information temporarily
- often thought of as a workspace within the mind that is used to moment-by-moment bases
- subject to 2 limitation: limited capacity and short duration
- the likely location for the working memory is the frontal cortex
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Autobiographical memory
- the ability to recall early experiences
- possible explanation for weak autobiographical memories:
- the inability of infants to encode information verbally
- underdeveloped areas of the brain implicated in memroy formation
- the use of scripts, generalized versions of events tha happen to young children
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Process of memory- general
- encoding
- storage
- retreival
- memory works like an assembly line--> before information can make it long term memory, it must first pass through sensory memory and working memory
- according to information-processing model, the human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns
- does through three steps
1. encoding- transofrming into a form that can be stored in memory
2. storage- maintaining information in memory
3. retrieval- bringing stored memory into mind
memory failure can result from failure of any of these steps
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Role of Hippocampus on process of memory
- inolved in a process called consolidation
- information is gradually changed into long-term memories
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Process of memory: Encoding
- rehearsal (maintenence and elaborative)
- 3 types of encoding
Encoding:
Rehearsal=
- encoding--> information can be stored in memory
- modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system
- requires selective attentio (focusing on relevant information, filtering out background interference)
- more time spent learning new information, the more we remember
2 processes key to rehearsal
Maintenance:
- prolonging expsure to information by repeating it
- improves short term memory
- like remembering a phone number
Elaborative:
- prolonging exposure to information thinking about its meaning
- imrpoves long term memory
3 types of encoding:
1. semantic encoding
- encoding of meaning
2. acoustic encoding
- encoding of sounds
- especially of words
3. visual encoding
- encoding of picture images
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Process of memory: Storage
- levels of processing--> shallow, deep, consolidation
retention of encoded material over time
- levels of processing (LOP)
Shallow: superficial properties of information
Deep: properties related to the meaning and function of information are processed.- self reference test--> how the information relies to you
Consolidation: Physiological processes in brain (hippocampus), forms permanent memory
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Process of memory: retreival
location- the recovering stores information from memory
retreival clues are the search terms used to activate memory- think of the brain's google search
- the more specific the terms are, the more better at locating and recovery of information will be
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Process of memory: Recall and Recognition
- memories can be cued in two ways
Recall: a retreival method in which must reproduce previously presented meterial
- Ex: essay test
Recognition: a retrieval method in which one must identitfy information that is provided, which has previously presented
- ex: multiple choice test
42
Encoding specifity principle
- retreival of information is much better and more rapid if the ocnditions at the time of encoding and retreival are the same
43
State-dependant memory
memories and retreival are more effective if the individual's internal state reflects the state the individual was in during the encoding
44
Mood-dependent memory
an individual tends to selectivley remember memories that match or are congruent with current mood
45
Ebbinghaus's research- Curve of Forgetting
- used himself as the subject
- he memorized a long list of nonsense syllables which he chose because they had no meaning to him
- he measured his retention of the list of syllables at certain intervals
- forgetting was most rapid at first (58% after 20 mins and 44% after 1 hour)
- then the rate of forgetting tapered off (34% after one day, 25% after 6 days and 21% after 31 days)
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Causes of forgetting
- encoding failure
- decay
- consolidation failure
- interference
Encoding failure: material not put into long term memory
Decay: unused memories disapear with time
Consolidation failure: distruption in consolidation
Interference: old (proactive) or new (retroactive information interferes with learning or recall
47
changes in brain- age-related memory loss
- with age there may be some changes in the brain that affect speed of the brain, which then inturn effect memory
1. the hippocampus often deteriorates with age
2. hormones and proteins that protect and repair nruons also decline with age
3. older people experience decreased blood flow to the brain which can affect brain function, memory, and cognitive skills
4. number of neurons declines overall. size of dendrites decreases, number of synapses decreases - effecting all efficiency in the brain
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Developmental psychology
- the study of human physical, cognitive, social and behavioural characterisitics across the lifespan, including:
- how we grow, develop, and change throughout lifespan
- contiunuum of age goups: infancy, childhood, adolescence, early, middle, and late adulthood, end of life
- specific areas of interest: physical development, moral development, language development, social development, cognitive development
- children's development influences their expereicnes, but their experiences also influence their development
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Principles of Growth and Development
- continuous sequential process from birth to death
- during the first year, growth is very rapid
- growth levels off during preschool to elementary phase
- growth picks up again during early adolescent phase
- each child grows in his or her unique way
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Physical growth trends
Proximaldistal trend --> develop the important part of the brain and the internal organism
- "Near to fear"
- head, chest and trunk grow ahead of extremities
Cephalocaudal trend
- "head to tail"
- head develops more rapidly than lower part of the body
Epiphyses
- in the pre-natal development, bones form as cartilage
- shortly before birth turn into bone epiphyses (hard at each end and middle)
51
Important aspects of Development
Development occurs in a relatively orderly sequence, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge building on those already acquired
Ex; crawl, pull to stand, steps, walking
an, cooing, sounds, approximations, words phrases, sentences
Development proceeds a varying rates from child to chilas well as unevenly within different areas of each cholds functioning
- individual pattern timing and growth
- unique personality, temperment and learning style
- varied experiences and family background
Early experiences have both cumilative and delayed affects on individual's development; optimal
Ex; first 3 years optimal for verbal language
52
Research design in Developmenta; Psychology
- cross sectional design
- longitudinal design
a comparison of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies
- to study age realated changes using longitudinal study, researchers examine to same group of individuals over an extended period of time
- when using cross-sectional study, researchers examine and comapre two different agre groups at one point in time
Cross-sectional design
- examine people of different ages at a single point in time
Longitudinal design
- examines development i the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
- time consuming, costly
53
nature and nurture influences
both are important in shaping development
- its not an "either or" issue any longer
- gene-environment interaction- impact on genes in behaviour depends on the environment where behavior develops
54
Attachment - Key aspects of development
originally conceptualized by John Bowlby to describe a close reciprocal emotional relationship between 2 people
- attachment based on emotional secuirity - the availability and responsiveness of key individuals in our lives when we are distressed
- attachment relationships are important from birth to death; but how they are expressed, with whome and under what circumstances changes with age
- current research focuses on the cultural relevance
- the terms "attachment" and responsive "caregiving" have diverse meanings as families from different societies across the world express affection for their children in ways that are consistent with their own cultural moorings and norms
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Cycle of attachment
Arousal- relaxation cycle
trust, secuirty, attachment: relaxation --> need--> high arousal --> satisfy need --> back to relaxation and so on
- think culturally: all around thr world, when we are upset, we need to have a significant other be there for us when we are emotionally upset
- how the need for help "I need you.. are you there for me"... is expressed and given differently across cultures
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Neurobiology of attachment- full brain involvment across lifespan
--> right (emotional) and left (rational) brain
Right of emotional brain
- right hemisphere and intricate neural connection with the limbic system and amydala and hippocampus
- eomtional relationships, a right brain to right brain system
- early caregiving experiences shape the organization of the right brain which is the nuerological core of the human unconcious
Left of rational brain
- left hemisphere provides the "story line" of our relationships
left hemisphere involved after 2 years of age- verbal development
- provides a coherent narrative
the concious left brain of a child/adult(s) connects with the consious left brain of adult
Facilitates the 'talking aspects of relationships'
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Attachment styles
created by Mary Ainsworth through her research onvolving the Strange situation which she created
Type A --> Secure
Type B --> Insecure avoidant
Type C --> Insecure axious ambivalent
Current research - Ainsworth work is not considered to be highly problematic, unethical, and most importantly - NOT culturally relavent
- the sample was restricted to 100 middle class American mothers & their infants - very skewed and biased
- in addition, the concept of stranger anxiety was based on Ainsworth's ideas - White Western
- variations in beliefs about "stranger" across cultures was not considered (for some cultures; stranger danger does not exist, greatly affecting the "stranger" part of the Strange Situation procedure
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Development - Hisotircal, Cultural and Societal Contexts
these 3 contexts are critically important to the understanding of child development
- transmission of patterns of beliefs, values, customs, and skills, to younger generations- reflective of historic and cultural contexts
ex: intergenerational trauma
- we also know that changes in society across generation have a huge effect on development
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developmental domains
- physical
- cognitive
- language
- social & emotional
- development in one domain influences and is influences by development in other domains
Ex: language skills impact social relationships
Ex: crawling increases development due to its icreased ability to explore
- an individual can prograss in different domains at various time and stages
- children may experience significant prograss in one domain while developing more slowly in another
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Developmental Domain
- Physical Development
physical development considers the body and how it grows and develops
considered to involve:
- physical changes - height, weight, strneght etc.
- nuerological development
- gross motor skills
- fine motor skills
- sensory development
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Developmental domain
- Cognitive Development
- an individuals ability to process information- to think and understand what is happening around them
considered to involve:
- intellectual- thinking, acquiring new knowledge, attention, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving skills
- creativity
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Developmental Domain - Language Development
language domain involved comprehending and using language
- expressive language (speaking)
- receptive language (understand what others are saying
- verbal communication - spoken word, story telling, questioning, songs
- non0verbal communications; consists of body language, momvement, gestures, body and facial expression
- literacy
billingual and multilingual development
- sometimes considered to be within the cognitive domain
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Developmental Domain
- Social- emotional development
Considered to involve:
- sense of belonging
- forming healthy relationships
interaction with others
experience, understand, express and manage your own emotions
- understand others emotions
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Stages of developement
- prenatal (conception to birth)
- infancy (birth to 1 year)
- toddlerhood 1 year to 2.5 years, sometimes 3 years)
- early childhood (2.5 to 5 years)
- middle childhood (5 to 12 years)
- adolescence (12 to 18 years)
- emerging adulthood (18 to the mid - to late twenties)
(these are considered Western classifications, can vary accross cultures and societes, globally)
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Prenatal development
- brain development
- factors affecting prenatal development
Prenatal development
- period of zygote (weeks 0-2)
- conception (sperm fertilizes ovum)
- embryonic stage (weeks 3-8)
major systems, organs, structures of body develop in embryo
Cephalocaudal and proximaldistal devlopment
Genetics and enivronment begin to shape an individual throughout pregnancy (gestation)
Prenatal brain development
- between day 18 and approximately 180 days (6 months), nuerons grow at an incredible rate
Factors affecting prenatal development
- teratogens are environmental factors that can exert a negative impact on prenatal devlopment
Ex: smoking, drugs, chicken pox
- alcohol consumption can lead to Fetal Alchohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
- FASD involved in cognitive functioning and facial development disorders
- genetic factors can be from disorders (down syndrome) or random errors in cell divisioin
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Preemies- preterm infants
- kangaroo care
- born ealrier than 36 weeks
- children born at 25 weeks have 50% chanceof surviving
children born at 30 weeks have 95% chance of surviving, becuase fetal development happens so quickly
- survival is the first step, then possible negative cognitive, long term and short term effects
Kangaroo care
- interestinf suport desgined for preemies
- skin to skin contact of a parent and preemie
- holding technique, baby only wearing diaper, to parents bare chest
- non invasive, supportive, and early intervention for preterm infants
- improves survival rates of premature and low birth weight newborns and lowers risks of infection
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Infancy
- infancy through toddlerhood
- brain development--> myelination, synaptogenesis, synaptic pruning
- sensory development
- motor development
- emotional development
- social development
Infancy (birth to 1 year)
- infants and toddlers experience the fastest growth and development age/stage in the lifespan
- infants -- brain development
Myelination: begins prenatally and accelerates through infancy and childhood and then continues gradually for several decades
Synaptogenesis & Synaptic pruning
- synaptic development- 2 key processes:
Synaptogenesis - the forming of new synaptic connections
Synaptic pruning - the loss of weak nerve cell connections
Sensory development
- born helpless and require extensive care
- hearing better than vision
- imitate facial expressions
- prefer to look at a stimuli that looks like a face
Motor development
- Reflexes- infants are bornw ith a large set of automatic motor behaviours
- some reflexes have significance- sucking and rooting reflexes essential for feeding
- many reflexes have evolutionary roots
Progression of motor development
- most infants develop motor skills at a sequence
- variablility in any of these milestones, not all infants develop at same rate
- cross cultural differences in development
Emotional
- as brain matures, so does social and emotional development
- social smile at 4 weeks - happiness
- stranger anxiety starts at 8-9 months
- through the first year infants begin to refine their emotional expression with interaction with their primary caregiver(s)
- an infants temperment is a key factor in emotional regulation but also social relationships- basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin
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Infants and Toddlers - Social development
- Social Cognition and Self concept
social cognition- thinking people demostrate about the thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviours of themelves and other people
Self awarness/self-cencept - one's perceptions of one's unique attributes or traits - a combination of physical and psychological attributes
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Development of the Self
- Toddlerhood (1 year to 2.5 years; sometimes indicated as 3 years)
- brain development
- motor development (gross and fine)
Begins at birth
brain development
- 80% of a child's brain develops by age 3
- rapid growth of language, thinking, reasoning, and memory due to the increased growth and efficiency of the toddler brain
- by the time a child moves to preschool years, a child has aroun 1000 trillion brain connections (synapses), the most they will ever have in their life, these are 'pruned' in later development
- a child's genes, their environemnt and experiences all work together to make these connections and build healthy brains
Motor development
Gross 12-24 months
- can usually walk backward
- loves to carry things, especially big
- likes to push or pull toys
- loves to throw things
- moves to music
seats itslef in childs chair
Fine (12-24 months)
- combines use of several objects
- begins to use speen to eat; can drink from a cup
- turns several pages at a time
- make a straight stroke with pencil
- turn a doorknob
- build a tower of many blocks
Emotional development
- toddler's brain development and language development strengthen their emotinal development
- toddlers react to more stimuli than infants, mor things to get angry or afraid at
- more physical responses to stimuli and emotional responses
- can better sense emotions in others and coomodate their behaviour
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Early Childhood (2.5 to 5 years)
- brain development
- gross and fine motor development
- social- emotional development
brain development
- better working memory
- prefrontal-cortical areas -- rapid growth, increase in executive functioning skills
- left cerebral hemisphere more active -- language and knowledge
- inner brain: Hippocampus -- memory and images of space. Amygdala: -- novelty and emotional information
- coprus callosum becomes more defined and better at carrying messages accross hemispheres
- better capacity for perceptual motor coordination
- cerebellum - blanace and control of body movement
Motor development
Gross
- engage in more complex motor skills: balancing, running, jumping, skipping, throwing, swinging, hopping
- greater balance, flexibility, speed and endurance
Fine
- more dexterity
- self-help skills --> dressing, feeding, shoe tying
- gripping, use of varied grips
- handedness, about 90% right-handed
Social and Emotional development
- differences in children's social and emotional development can be influences by culture, trust in relationships, and biological factos (temperment)
- sense of self continues
- friendships become important
- Importance of Theory of Mind - the ability to understand that other people have thoughts and feelings, beliefs, and persepctives that can be the same as the young child or different... taking the persepctive of others
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Middle Childhood (5 - 12 years)
- brain development
- motor development (gross and fine)
- Social and emotional development
- brain continues to grow and develop
- weight of brain increases by 10%
- white matter rises steadily
- gray matter peaks, then declines as a result of synaptic pruning
- synaptic pruning, accompanying reorganization and selection of brain circuits lead to more effective information processing
- neurotransmitters and hormones may affect brain development and functioning
Motor development
Gross (6 - 12)
- can balance, grip stuff better, and start to jump more
- by 12 can throw ball efficiently, jump 3 feet
Fine
- advances fine motor skills due to the amount of mylein in the brain
- better hand-eye coordination, dexterity, and control
- printing and writing - greater legibility
- drawing - greater organization, more detail and more purposeful
Social and emotional
- self esteem and self concept
- period of rapid gains in emotional regulation
- better manage emotions and understand along with cultural beliefs about emotional expression
- a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the callenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern word.
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Adolescence (12-18 years)
- brain development
- physical development
- social and emotional development
- moral development
brain development
- brain almost adult size
- less synaptic pruning, less-used, curcuits eliminated
- myleination leads to greater efficiency
- "pleasure centers" mature
- prefrontal cortex not fully developed
- more devloped pleasure centers and underdeveloped prefrontal cortex leads to risk taking behavior and innpropriate desicion making
Physical development
- 2 key aspects, growth spurt and puberty
- puberty marks the beggining of adolescence
- events and timing differ from boys and girls
- maturing late or early has different psycological side effects
- adolescents become taller, heavier, experience changes in both primary and secondary sex characterisitcs
Social emotional
- identity (identity crisis)
- curiosity, questioning, and exploration
- peer groups
- social media- benefits and harms
- romantic relationships
Moral development
- bigger capacity to regulate emotions but still developing, coming up with diverse strategies to regulate
- risk taking factors adolescents, thrill seeking, development of limbic system, reward systems (dopamine)
- linked with underdevelopment of prefrontal cortex (desicion making)
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development
- schema
- accomodation
- assimilation
Schema:
cognitive structures or concepts used to identify and interpret objects, events, information in environemnt, an organized ways of making sense of experience
Accomodation:
- child can no longer assimilate new information, accomodation occurs process of altering belief to make it more compatible with experience
Assimilation:
- children use assimilation to acquire new knowledge within a stage
- absorb knowledge into current structures
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development (birth to 2 years)
- object permanence
- infants and toddlers "think" with their sensorimotor equipment
- sensory imputs- vison and hearing become coordinated
- infants develop senorimotor schemas
object permanence:
- understanding what objects continue to exist when they are not in sensory or motor contact with the object, as revealed by retreival or hidden objects
- may be present withn first few months (earlier than Piaget conceptualized)
- mastery is gradual, more complex with age as changes take place in the frontal and prefrontal cortex
Awareness not yet complete: A-not B search error
e.g., continue to search for an object in its first hiding place even after seeing it moved
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Piaget's Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development (2yrs - 7 yrs)
- egocentrism
- conservation
- as children move from the senosrimotor to the preoperatoinal stage, cognitive representational activity increases
- use of symbols increases
- however children during this stage were thought to not be able to think logically
Egocentrism:
- focus only on their veiwpoint or persepctive
- unable to think about other's point of view
- Piaget beleived preschoolser's egocentric bias prevents them from accomodatin, or reflecting on and revising their limited reasoning
Conservation:
- developed the term conservation in relation to children's cognitive development
- children at preoperational stage canot yet conserve (they think certain physical characterisitcs or objects remain the sme, even with outward appearance changes)
this is due to 2 key aspects:
1. Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting other important features
2. irreversability: an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to starting point
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Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (7 yrs - 11 yrs)
- children develop skills in logical thinking and manipulating numbers
- more complex operation
- now able to observe decetration and reversability
- strategies and rules that kake thinking more systematic and powerful
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Piaget's Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development (11 yrs)
- in Piaget's final stage he felt children/ adolescents think more rationally and systematically
- can think abstractly and hypothetical events, using cognitice skills such as inductive reasoning
ex: they start with general theory about what produces a particular outcome an then explanations for specific situations in which they see that particular outcome
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Piaget's work
- theory of cognitive development
- contributions
- challenges
contributions
- helped understand children are fundamentally different from adults
- founded discipline of cognitive development
- emphasized childrens active involvement in their development
- attempted to explain not just describe development
- infleunced research in other areas of development (social, emotional)
challenges
- limited technology- limited # of children observed, lead to limited understanding
- Piaget indicated all children go through sequential stages--> but is development something that all children go trough uniformly?
- many cognitive changes are gradual and continuous rather than abrupt and stage-like
- culturally biased methods, western educated examples
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Vytogosky's Sociocultural Theory of Development
- more knowledgable other
- Zone of proximal development
- Scaffholding
- Importance of language
More knowledgeable other
- cognitive development is inseperable from social, cultural and historic contexts
- cognitive devleopment occurs with the support of adults
termed MKOs
- what children learn is culturally sensitive, varies from culture to culture
Zone of proximal development
- difference between what a child can do alone/independantly or wih assistance or from MKO
Scaffholding
- the support provided by MKO ntially to faciliatate a child's leaning of a skill may be a lot - verbal, hand ove rhand, demonstration, imitation
- as the child learns the kill the scaffholding gets less and less until they can do it independantly
Importance of language
- used for mental reasoning and to regulate own behavior
- external speecj to converse with others - helping a child to learn
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comapring Vygotsky and Piaget cognitive development theory
- culturally
- from where does cognitive development stem?
- individual and social processes
- adults and peers being the important change agents
Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory
1. cognitive development caires accross cultures
2. cogntive growth stems from social interactions
3. social processes become individual psychological processes
4. adults are espeically important as change agents, transmitting cultures and tools
Piaget Cognitive-Developmental Theory
1. Cognitive development is mostly universal
2. cognitive development stems largely from independant explorations
3. individual processes become social processes, egocetric speech adapts
4. peers are especially important as change agents
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Psych*1000
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