1
Q
Essay Points
A
how might humans affect their environ & vice versa
envrion -> human:
- drought
- earthquakes
- floods
- hurricanes
- landslides
- space weather - refers to sun & space. could damage critical infrastructure i.e. electric grid
- thunderstorms
- tornadoes
- tsunamis
- volcanoes
- wildfires
- winter storms
humans -> environ:
- water
- tankers & offshore rigs can cause oil spills
- industries may dump chemical waste tht enters & pollutes the water supply
- feritlizers & pesticides from farms can seep into groundwater & cause harm
- untreated sewage
- land
- chemical waste poisons fertile topsoil
- solid waste is dumped in landfills
- radioactive waste from nuclear power plants & toxic runoff from chemical processing plants
- deforestation
- overplowing, etc.
- air
- burning of fossil fuels by industries & vehicles -> smog
- acidic chemicals in air pollution combine w/ precipitation to form acid rain
2
Q
6 purposes of gov’t
A
form a more perfect Union
establish Justice
insure domestic tranquility
provide for the common defense
promote the general welfare
secure the blessings of liberty
3
Q
form a more perfect Union
A
to form a country tht is btr than other countries in existence & a true union of the states
any action taken by the gov’t has to be done for the good of the nation.
accept losses and learn from them
4
Q
establish Justice
A
to establish a just society; mostly Judicial Branch
“fair” doesn’t always mean “equal” - means what u deserve (segregation = “equal” but not fair)
5
Q
insure domestic Tranquility
A
maintain a peaceful/lawful/orderly society
peace @ home
police, firefighters (police have limits, too)
6
Q
provide for the common defence
A
to protect its citizens & sovereignty against hostile enemies
marines, navy(sea), army(land), ari force(pretty new but very good), coast guard(drug trafficking, search & rescue, illegal immigrants, boat licenses)
7
Q
Why is the National Guard not really national?
A
most of the time, under the control of individual states, w/ the state governor acting as commander in chief
however, prez can activitate the National Guard and place it under federal control
8
Q
promote the general welfare
A
raise the wellbeing of the general population
(Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, food stamps, welfare checks, Obamacare)
9
Q
secure the Blessings of Liberty
A
gift of being able to choose
even free to break the law, altho u’ll be punished
passed on by the gov’t, parents, teachers, rep’s, leaders of any industry
10
Q
4 characteristics of states
A
territory (definable boundaries)
gov’t (system of order)
population (significant amount)
sovereignty (supreme & absolute power in its own territory)
11
Q
y r the 50 states not actually states?
A
don’t have sovereignty.
federal gov’t supreme over state gov’t
12
Q
4 origins of the state
A
Force Theory
Evolutionary Theory
Divine Right Theory
Social Contract Theory
13
Q
Force Theory
A
1 person/group claimed an area & forced all w/in it 2 submit
based on physical prowess
14
Q
Evolutionary Theory
A
developed out of primitive family
1 head person = gov’t
family → network of related families(clan) → tribe → tribe w/ agriculture & not nomadic → state
15
Q
what 2 theories of the origin of the state could merge together?
A
force & evolutionary cuz both use physical power
16
Q
Divine Right Theory
A
widely acceptedi n much of WEstern world
15-18th centuries
state created by God, who had given royal ppl a “divine” right 2 rule
disobeying = moral sin & treason
17
Q
more common form of “divine right”
A
chosen by God to rule
Europe, China, Japan
18
Q
rare form of “divine right”
A
ruler = god
Alexander the Great
19
Q
Social Contract Theory
A
ppl w/in a given area agreed 2 give up to the state as much power as was needed for all’s wellbeing
state exists only 2 serve the ppl
rulers & ruled agree to legitimate behavior
20
Q
what elements of the state does the social contract theory have?
A
popular sovereignty
limited gov’t
individual rights
21
Q
pros of social contract theory
A
security, civility, guaranteed certain freedoms
22
Q
cons of social contract theory
A
loss of absolute freedom(autonomy), uncertainty of illegitimate leaders
23
Q
3 gov’t categories
A
relationship b/w legisl & exec branches
distribution of power
who can participate
24
Q
relationship b/w legis & exec branches
A
presidential or parliamentary
25
presidential gov't
executive is elected outside of legis by populace
USA
26
parliamentary gov't
Prime Minister elected from w/in legis
Parliament elects PM
UK
27
distribution of power
unitary
federal
confederate
28
unitary gov't
a single, central level as source of power
North Korea & UK
29
federal gov't
national = supreme over local
USA (Article 6, Sec. 2 National Supremacy Clause)
30
confederate gov't
local = supreme over national
loose alliance of states
Articles of Confederation, Confederate States of Am
31
who can participate
dictatorship
democracy
32
dictatorship gov't
@ least 1 person/entity
above the law
North Korea
33
democracy
pure/direct -or- representative/republic
34
pure/direct democracy
everyone votes on every issue
rare
Lord of the Flies
35
representative/republic democracy
the populace elects ppl to go vote on every issue
USA
36
5 foundations of democracy
fundamental worth of the individual
equality of all persons
majority rule & minority rights
necessity of compromise
individual freedom
37
fundamental worth of the individual
everything a demo society does should be done w/in the limits of this concept
democracy serves the many who, as individual, together make up a society
one person = one vote
38
equality of all person
everyone is equal:
- before the law
- in opportunity
39
equal in opportunity
no person should be held back 4 any arbitrary reasons like race, color, religion, / gender
ppl should be free 2 develop themselves as fully as they possibly can
40
majority rule & minority right
majority = usually right
democracy = trial & error - not looking for "right" answers but satisfactory solutions 2 public problems
majority rule can be abused, so restrained by minority rights (willing to listen, right to become majority)
41
compromise
process of blending & adjusting competing views & interests in order 2 find the position most acceptable 2 the largest # of ppl
absolutely necessary for progress
42
necessity of compromise
democracy puts individ. 1st AND insists each is equal - how else can ppl w/ so many diff opinions make public decisions?
few public decisions have only 2 sides, often several answers
43
individual freedom
dem. can thrive only w/ individual freedom but can't insist on complete freedom 4 individ → anarchy
your right to choose, right or wrong, despite the consequenes guaranteed in a democracy
44
Magna Carta
1215
against King John (son of King Richard the Lionheart)
trial by jury. due process of law. protection against arbitrary taking of life, liberty, or property. limited gov't
1st doc to limit power of a king
45
due process of law
all legal proceedings will be fair & consistent & one will be given notice of the proceedings & an opportunity to be heard before the gov't acts to take away 1's life, liberty, or property
46
Petition of Right
1628 during English Civil War
king can't imprison political critics w/out trial by jury; can't declare martial law during peacetime; nor require ppl 2 give gift, loan, tax, etc. w/out common consent of Parliament. quartering of soldiers. challenged divine right of kings. kings not above the law.
47
martial law
rule by the military
48
English Bill of Rights
1688. during Glorious/Bloodless Revolution
no standing army in peacetime unless by consent of Parliament. all Parliamentary elections = free. king can't suspend/execute laws w/out Parliamentary consent. levying $ for/to the crown is illegal. subj's can petition the king & prosecution for petition = illegal. right to fair & speedy trial. freedom from excessive bail & from cruel & unusual punishment.
49
Thomas Hobbes
1588. influenced by English Civil War (which was bad)
Leviathan
gov't should be powerful cuz humans = inherently wicked/selfish.
w/out gov't life would be "brutish, nasty, & short"
benevolent monarchy = ideal gov't (altho monarchy could become bad)
50
John Locke
1632. influenced by Glorious Revolution.
2 Treatises of Gov't
less gov't = ideal cuz humans r basically moral
respected Hobbes, just didn't agree w/ him
51
3 types of ppl (John Locke)
materialist - Hobbes. life has only concrete meaning
idealist - Locke. life has hidden, special meaning
dualist - Rosseau. combo of both
52
Jean Jacques Rosseau
1762.
Du Contract Social
"man = born free but is everywhere in chains"
believed France = beacon of light 4 gov't style
53
materialistic & idealistic interpretations of Rosseau's quote
materialist - free of clothes, ability to survive
idealist - free of rules & shame
54
Voltaire
1694-1778
France
wealthy family. disowned (they thought he was studying finance but actually philosophy)
champion of social justice (anti-classism)
"In praise of British Gov't" banished for life.
spread in lots of countries including France cuz young ppl told not 2 study Voltaire
55
who did all of the social contract philosophers influence?
Thomas Jefferson
Hobbes - federal
Locke - life, liberty, equality, perfect Union
56
6 principles of the constitution
popular sovereignty
limited gov't
separation of powers
checks & balances
judicial review
federalism
57
popular sovereignty
everyone has a vote in creating something (such as a law)
the source of power in our country
1852 Kansas-Nebraska Act - let ppl vote on whether to be slave state/not.
58
limited gov't
gov't is not all powerful
in democracy, no king. law is king. law = for people. ppl = source of power
rule of law
authority of gov't = adequate to needs of society but never overpowering
59
separation of powers
make law (leg - Congress)
enforce law (exec - Prez)
interpret law (jud - Supreme Court)
power of king divided in 3
60
checks & balances
how our gov't prevents branches from getting too powerful
61
judicial branch checks
L - courts may declare acts of Congress to be unconsitutional
E - judges r free from exec control
62
legislative branch checks
J - Congress creates lower courts, may remove judges thru impeachment
E - may override veto by 2/3 vote
63
executive branch checks
J - prez appoints Supreme Court justices & other federal judges
L - prez may veto legislation & call special sessions
64
judicial review
power to determine the constitutionality of laws AND actions
65
federalism
division of power among a central gov't & several regional gov'ts
Article 6 Sec. 2 National Supremacy Clause
Federalism doesn't exist w/out local gov't (Amendment 10)
66
Marbury vs. Madison
1803
courts r empowered to interpret the consitutionality of laws and actions'
madison refuses to step down
67
Articles of Confederation
agreement ratified in 1781 by the 13 original states;
provided a legal symbol of their union by giving the central gov't no coercive power over the states or their citizens
68
newest & oldest origin of states theories
newest: Social Contract
oldest: Divine Right
69
royal colonies
crown rule
governor from source of power above --\> for US , from source below
pays taxes to the gov't
Virginia
all colonies were considered this type of colony by Americans in 1776
70
charter colonies
self-rule
still had to follow a charter but had a lot of liberty --\> both have lesser parts involved that have rights
MA, CT, RI
71
proprietary colonies
proprietors given land by king
owned & operated by proprietors
open minded
owner-operated (like our economy w/ businesses)
PA (William Penn from George I), Maryland
72
what type of thing was the Glorious/Bloodless Revolution?
a peaceful transition of power
73
rule of law
no one is above the law
74
Constitution
each application for admission to the union requires this "plan for gov't" tht lays down the laws for the rulers & the ruled
a body of fundamental principles/established precedents according to which a state/other organization is acknowledged to be governed
75
formal amendment process 4 methods
1) 2/3 Congress. 3/4 state legislatures. used 26x
2) 2/3 Congress, 3/4 state conventions. used 1x
3) 2/3 national convention, 3/4 state legislatures
4) 2/3 national convention. 3/4 state conventions
76
informal amendment process
US Code of Titles Statutes
don't completely change laws (Ex: No Child Left Behind Act)
1) basic legislation by Congress
2) actions taken by Prez
3) decisions of supreme court (Marbury vs. Madison)
4) activities of political parties
5) custom
77
basic legislation by Congress
Congress passes "statutes" that add details to existing Articles & Amendments
78
executive action
exhibited by the prez blocking trade w/ a country who doesn't have a good relationship w/ the US
79
activities of political parties
major parties have held national conventions
Congress does many things based on parties
80
custom
gov't ceremonies of tradition
Cabinet, VP -\> P, no 3rd terms, Pomp & Circumstance)
81
formal amendment
change/addition that becomes part of the written language of the Const itself thru 1 of 4 methods set forth in the Const
82
informal amendment
changes 2 the Constitution that don't lead 2 changes in the written document
83
Bill of Rights
a statement of fundamental rights of the US ppl, in Amendments 1-10
84
what supreme court decisions have caused informal amendments?
1896 - Plessy vs. Ferguson (segregation legal)
1954 - Brown vs. Board of Edu (segregation illegal)
1966 - Miranda vs. Az (accused must be read Miranda rights & told wat they're being accused of)
1973 - Roe vs. Wade (abortion illegal)
85
12th Amendment
used to be lozer prez becomes VP, but now prez & VP run together
86
25th Amendment
allows VP to replace P if P dies/resigns (informal amendment)
VP -\> speaker of the house -\> pro tempore of the senate -\> secretary of state -\> secretary of treasury -\> secretary of defense -\> ....... -\> secretary of homeland security
87
why is it so hard to formally amend the Constitution?
security
88
government
the body w/ the power to make &/or enforce laws 2 control a country, land area, ppl, / organization
89
sovereignty
(of a nation) the state of making laws & controlling resources w/out the coercion of other nations
(of a ruler) supreme authority over all things
90
state
a nation/territory considered as an organized political community under one gov't
91
supremacy
the state/condition of being superior to all others in authority, power, or status
92
bicameral
having 2 separate legislative houses
93
unicameral
having a single legis chamber
94
charter
a document issued by some authority, creating a public/private institution & defining its purposes & privileges
95
trial by jury
a jury either makes a decision/makes findings of fact, which r then aplied by a judge
96
public policy
the principles, often unwritten, on which social laws r based
97
boycott
w/drawal frm commercial/social relations w/ a country/org/person as a punishment/protest
98
ratification
the act of confirming by expressing consent
99
legislative branch
House = 435 members, 2 yr terms
Senate = 100 member, 6 year terms
100
apportionment
the distribution in the House among the seats on the basis of their respective populations
101
House of Reps qualifications
25 years old
citizen/inhabitant in their state 7 yrs
102
Senate qualifications
30 yrs old
ctz/inhb 9 yrs
103
President qualifications
35 yrs
natural-brn citizen
lived in US for @ least 14 years
104
natural born citizen
born on US soil, born of 1 Am. citizen
105
Virginia Plan
3 branches
2 houses (1 pop based, the other donation based)
better for big states
106
NJ Plan
unicameral (equal representation)
better for smaller states
107
CT Compromise
merged the VA & NJ Plans
bicameral {House [pop. rep.] & Senate[equal rep])
3 branches (leg, ex, jud)
108
3/5 Compromise
each slave = 3/5 person
population including slaves in South = huge, so this made it more equal for smaller states
109
3 Basic Econ Q's
What 2 Produce
how 2 produce
for whom 2 produce
110
what 2 produce
use readily available resources
111
how 2 produce
The methods and labor used as well as the quality of items produced are important factors.
112
for whom to produce
demographic
113
4 Economic Systems
traditional
market
command
mixed
114
traditional economy
bartering breeds inconsistent success
what 2 produce - handcrafts, farm animals and farming crops
how 2 produce - by the family unit or in small tribes/collectives all local to the area it is consumed in.
for whom 2 produce - the family, tribe etc to use or to be traded locally for other handcrafts, animals or crops.
115
market economy
private enterprise system
free enterprise system
capitalism
hypothetical
not influenced by gov't, but instead by greed
demand driven by consumers
what 2 produce: whatever the consumers want
how 2 produce: firms should be both productively efficient and alloctively efficient
for whom: The free market system tends to create an unfair distribution of income. The wealthy consume a disproportionately large share of what is produced.
116
command economy
does exist
complete & dictatorial
gov't controls 3Q
what: gov't decides
how: gov't decides
for whom:tries to be fair in distributing the output of the economy.
117
mixed economy
blend of command & market
what: determined by the demand of the consumer, unless the government institutes requirements for what to produce
how: determined by suppliers seeking for the most cost-effective way to produce goods, unless the government institutes regulations such as environmental standards
for whom: determined by the people who can afford to pay for goods, unless the government makes something a priority to provide (education, for example)
118
when may a mixed economy have gov't interference?
to promote fair competition
to protect national security
to promote the well-being of the state
119
Law of Supply
microeconomic law stating that, all other factors being equal, as p of g/s increases, q offered by suppliers increases as well
120
Law of Demand
microeconomic law stating that, all other factors being equal, as p of g/s increases, consumer demand decreases
121
laws of supply & demand
theories abt the interaction b/w supply of a g/s & demand for it
122
equilibrium
when supply & demand r equal (when the supply & demand functions intersect)
@ this point, allocation of goods is @ its most efficient cuz amount of goods being supplied = amount of goods being demanded
results: affordability & profitability
123
disequilibrium
excess supply or excess demand
quantity supply is NOT equal to quantity demand
124
excess supply
if p too high, ppl don't want it
surplus
125
excess demand
p too low, too many ppl want it & not enough supply
deficit
126
surplus
the amount of an asset/resource that exceeds the portion that is used
demand \< supply
127
deficit
the amount by which expenses exceed income -or- costs outstrip revenues
supply \> demand
128
microeconomics
individual (persons/businesses/entities)
129
macroeconomics
whole economies
all microeconomies interact - whole of microec interactions
130
demanders & suppliers
consumers & producers
131
demand schedule
this kind of chart can track the willingness & ability of consumers to purchase products @ variable prices
132
demand curve
represents what the demand for a commodity would be if its price ranged anywhere from zero to infinity
133
supply curve
graphic representation of the relationship b/w product price & quantity of a product that a seller is willing & able to supply
134
always on vertical axis
price
135
always on the horizontal axis
quanity (demanded/supplied)
136
price elasticity of demand
a measure of the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a change in its price
the range/margin of fluctuation of price for a product before demand is affected
% chage in demand / % change in price
\<1 = inelastic, \>1 = elastic
137
price ceiling
the point where demand starts too fall (price too high)
138
price floor
the point where price can go no lower before no profit
139
staple products
consumers tend to buy these necessities regardless of significant price changes
grocery - milk, bread, meats
household - gas, water, energy
140
gourmet food
often inelastic
may require an increase/decrease of 50% to create any perceptible changes in consumers' behavior
these types of consumers not as value-concious as regular shoppers
141
unitary elasticity
in economics, situation where a change in 1 factor causes an equal/proportional change in another factor
142
economy by scale
the greater the quantity of a good produced, the lower the per-unit fixed cost because these costs r shared over a larger # of goods
143
price gouging
when someone raises the price of a g/s cuz they know it's otherwise nonexistent/rare
144
4 levels of industry
raw material extraction
manufacturing
distribution
retail
145
raw material extraction
getting the basic material from which a product is made
146
manufacturing
process of taking raw material & finishing it into a product
sometimes multistage
147
distribution
trucks, planes, trains
refrigerated/armored trucks
allocating finished products to their retail destinations
148
retail
product meets consumer
149
bulk purchasing
retailers buy in bulk w/ discount rate & add their own cost (Costco, BJ's, etc.)
150
allocation
the distribution of resources to where they need to go
151
cottage industry
qualitative
can do every stage urself
master craftspeople
smaller demographic but loyal
often labor-intensive
152
labor-intensive
more humans than machines
153
mass production
quantitative
uses "specialized" workers on an assembly line
capital-intensive
154
capital-intensive
low cost, high revenue
machines \> humans
155
vertical monolopy
dominates 2+ levels of industry
156
horizontal monopoly
dominates 1 level of industry
157
4 factors of production
land
labor
capital
management
158
land
space to produce
literal/figurative
159
literal land
farmers, industrail
160
figurative land
laboratory acces, cyberspace
161
labor
manufacturing
quantitative/qualitative
162
capital
liquidating assets
fuel 4 production
163
management
hiring other managers (efficient & loyal, responsible 4 success)
164
what 2 categories r combined?
4 factors of production & 4 levels of industry
165
standard of living
the level of wealth, comfort, material goods, & necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain geographic area
166
inflation
a rise in the average price of goods & services in the macroeconomy
167
deflation
reduction of the general level of prices in macroeconomy
168
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
the total dollar value of all final products (g/s) [avoid double-counting] produced in 1 country in 1 year
measures spending to measure well-being
169
nominal GDP
literal count
170
real GDP
deflated & more realistic since previous year's inflation factored out
171
GDP per capita
average amount produced per person in a country
(GDP/pop)
used 2 measure well-being per person
172
GDP categories (expenditure approaches)
personal consumption
business investment
trade (imports/exports)
gov't expenditures
173
personal consumption
largest category in most market & mixed economies
US has largest
174
business investment/expenditures
growth spending - buying land/rights
measures the improvement costs encountered by companies in a nation in a year
175
trade (imports/exports)
Imports \> Exports = deficit
Imports \< Exports = surplus
US has had trade deficit since early 1970s
176
gov't expenditures
most of all the gov'ts income is generated by tax revenue
40% of world's defense spending
mostly Health & Human services & Social Security → socialist stuff in capitalist country
2nd largest GDP category
177
GDP flaws
can't always accurately measure standard of living w/ GDP/capita
doesn't consider built-in quality of products (cottage industry stuff), GDP/capita, leisure time, household work, how goods r distributed
not all countries can pay for their own census or count
178
leisure time
time not working
can be therapeutic or just bad
179
importance of household work
organization must be regular or ability to work will be affected
180
how does the GDP not always accurately measures the standard of living?
if 2 countries have the same area, pop, or GDP, may have drastically diff geography that may affec their spending
181
economic styles
socialism
communism
capitalism
182
socialism
state can (& usually does) own industry & capital, altho private ownership allowed too
students encouraged to get good edu to get better careers
183
communism
collective socialism
"state" owns all industry & capital
"state" prohibits private property
"state" prohibits classism (gov't is upper class)
184
capitalism
profit-seeking
based on private ownership
Am's have made search for profit into a moral, ethical code
185
profit
occurs when the amount of revenue gained from a business activity exceeds the expenses, costs, & taxes needed
186
determinants of demand
income
substitute products
complementary products
time period(attitude)
limited liability
unlimited liability
187
substitute products
uncommonly purchased products r on sale or commonly purchased ones r out of stock
replaces a predictable purchase w/ a more fortuitous one
188
complementary products
accompanies (@ least in thought) the purchase of another
demand for these may fall if associated products r out of stock/discontinued
Ex: pb & j, mac & cheese, french fries & ketchup
189
income (determinant)
limits or expands ur purchase power
190
time period (attitude)
1. yearly traditions - holidays & vacations
2. unplanned events - recession, convict escape
rationalizes the unique/ideal nature of the moment/occasion
191
limited liability
concept that shareholders of a business r responsible only 4 its debts up 2 the amount they invest in the business
if corporation goes bankrupt/sued, the stockholders' other assets can't be used to pay the debts of the business
192
unlimited liability
the concept that a stockholder's personal assets can be used 2 pay bills of the business
193
fractional reserve banking
a banking system in which only a fraction of bank deposits r backed by actual cash-on-hand & r available for withdrawal
this is done to expand the economy by freeing up capital that can be loaned out to other parties
194
multiple expansions of bank deposits
modern version of fractional reserve banking
195
M1
coins & currency + checkbook $
basic money supply
current = $2.2 trillion
196
M2
M1 + savings accounts
$11 trillion
197
M3
M2 + large long term deposits (have safety deposits so u can't take $ out)
198
obj's used as money before metals
salt, stone, glass beads, human skulls
199
date & place for 1st known standard currency
7th century BCE (600's)
Lydia, Anatolian Peninsula, Asia Minor (now Turkey)
200
4 characteristics of money
scarce (in demand)
easily divisible (gold = soft)
portable (goldsmiths let ppl deposit & borrow gold)
indestructable
201
what 2 characteristics did gold supply?
scarce & easily divisible
202
who were the first bankers
goldsmiths frequently used receipts to make loans & gather interest from repayment
203
how were US dollars gradually sep-ed from gold?
1929 - Stock Market Crash
1930's - "Gold Reserve Act" - illegal to use gold as currency
1971 - Nixon cut gold link for good
204
what is the US dollar backed by today?
bank assets & faith in our gov'ts promise of the value of our dollar
205
economic thinking
the wide use of available resources
206
needs & wants
necessities & luxuries
207
scarcity
the world is finite, limited
availability of resources tht r in demand = scarce
main prob of economics
208
opp. cost
short/long term neg effects of a decision
value lost
209
opp. benefit
short/long term pos effects of a decision
value gained
210
economic theorem
if needs & wants r unlimited & resources r limited, then the wise use of available resources = necessary for success
211
goods & services
an action/product exchanged for value intended to satisfy ur needs & wants
value determined by price determined by econ system being studied
212
money/currency
medium of exchange that everyone agrees on the value of
213
assets
things of value (gives advantage in survival & social)
capital/abstract
214
capital assets
cash or things worth cash
215
abstract assets
poise, charisma
216
expenditures
payment of cash or cash-equivalent for goods or services
217
globe
a scale model of the earth
not as detailed
218
map
a symbolic representation of all or part of the planet on a flat piece of paper
detailed
purpose of a map usually dictates which projection is used
219
distortion
when curves of a globe become straight lines on a map
distortion of size, shape, distance
220
planar/azimuthal projection
often used for maps of the Poles
221
cylindrical projection
based on the projection of the globe onto a cylinder
most accurate near Equator
shapes & distances distorted near Poles
222
conic projection
placing cone over part of globe
best for showing limited east-west areas tht rn't too far from Equator
can indicate distances & directions fairly accurately
223
projection
drawing of the Earth on a flat surface
224
Winkel Triple/Geographic Projection
good balance b/w size & shape of land areas as shown on map - even polar areas have little distortion of size and shape
adapted by National Geographic Society in 1998
most general reference world maps, classrooms
certainly most accurate flat surface map for all 3 categories of distortion
225
Robinson Projection
popular classroom map
slightly more distorted than Winkel Tripel
distance slightly distorted
226
Goode's Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
"orange peel wrap"
perfect size & shape
distance extremely distorted
used for comparing continental sizes & shapes (effects of erosion, how they were once connected, etc.)
227
Mercator Projection
poles stretched 360o - distorts the Poles the most
shape, distance quite true in Tropics
useful for sea travel
228
plotting
by estimation or placement
229
key
a list that explains what the symbols on a map stand for
230
compass rose
shows cardinal directions
231
cardinal directions
north, south, east, west
232
intermediate directions
northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest
233
great circle
an imaginary line that follows the curve of the Earh
important diff b/w globes & maps → cuz globes r round, accurately show great circle route but on map, looks longer
234
great circle route
traveling along a great circle
most efficient path for global travel
235
continents
Asia, Africa, North & South Am, Europe, Antarctica, Australia
236
oceans
4 major bodies of salt water tht surround the continents
Pacific(largest), Atlantic, Indian, Arctic
abt 97% of earth's water
237
seas
Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Baltic Sea
Bering Sea
Black Sea
Caribbean Sea
East China Sea
Gulf of Mexico
Hudson Bay
Mediterranean Sea
Red Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
South China Sea
238
major rivers
Amazon
Nile
Yangtze
Danube
Ganges
Mekong
Zambezi
Volga
Mississippi
Sepik
239
delta
flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by a river & deposited @ its mouth
240
downstream
direction in which a river/stream flows from the source to its mouth
241
river
large natural stream of water that runs thru the land
242
grid system
pattern formed as the lines of latitude & longitude cross one another
243
Equator
0o latitude
imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway b/w the North & South Poles
used as starting pt to measure degrees of north & south latitudes
244
Poles
latitudes 90N & 90S
6 months, 1 Pole tilted toward sun & receives continuous sunlight, while the other receives little to no sunlight (March 20-Sep.23rd)
245
meridian
one of many lines on the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole, used to measure degrees of longitude
360o total
246
Prime Meridian
line of the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole at Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England;
starting pt for measuring degrees of east/west long
0o long
247
why is Prime Meridian in England?
they held a conference & decided it
were in power then
248
International Date Line
day begins there
countries can choose what time zone they're in
180o long (not east or west)
249
parallel
1 of many lines on the global grid that circles the earth nrth/sth of the Equator
used 2 measure degrees of lat
180o total
250
global grid
every place has a global address
251
cartographers
mapmakers
252
hemispheres & quadrants
4 hemispheres (N, S, E, W)
4 quadrants (NE, SE, SW, NW)
we r in NW
africa in all 4 except (SW)
253
hydrosphere
the watery areas of the earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, & other bodies of water
abt 70% of our planet's surface is water
254
lithosphere
surface land areas of the earth's crust, including continents & ocean basins
abt 30% of the earth's surface is land
255
atmosphere
a layer of gases that surround the earth
256
mantle
thick middle layer of the earth's interior structure, consisting of hot, dense rock
silicon, aluminum, iron, chromium, nickel, cobalt, magnesium, oxygen, and other elements
continually rises, cools, sinks, warms up, & rises again, releasing 80% of the heat generated from the earth's interior
pressure from core = so hot that it causes the mantle to circulate & causes crust to relieve pressure by breaking up plates
257
magma
molten rock that is pushed up from the eath's mantle
258
subduction
a process by which mountains & faults can form as sea plates (usually the larger of the plates) dive beneath continental plates; sea plate becomes molten material & as magma, bursts thru the crust to form volcanic mtns
really big pressure underneath from core
Andes & Rockies
most violent
259
accretion
a slow process in which a sea plate slides under a continental plate, creating debris that can cause continents to grow outward
grinding, pressing (less than subduction) from mantle surges
levels off seamounts & piles up the resulting debris in trenches
faults, ripple ranges, trenches
San Andreas Fault, western California; ripple ranges in Rockies
260
spreading
a process by which new land is created when sea plates pull apart & magma wells up b/w the plates
undersea volcanic mtns/ridges(North Atlantic Ridge[Marians Trench]), rifts, trenches
occurs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean's floor, pushing Europe & North Am away from each other
261
fold
a bend in layers of rock, sometimes caused by plate movement
262
fault
a crack/break in the earth's crust
occurs when the folded land can't be bent any further
usually not exposed
San Andreas Fault, California
263
landform
any geological feature, such as a mtn/valley
natural features of the earth's surface
264
topography
study of landforms & diff's b/w elevation
265
erosion
wearing away of the earth's surface by wind, flowing water, or glaciers
constant movement of wind, water, & ice that changes the shape of topography
needs time & pressure
wind & water can work together to create caves
266
loess
fine, yellowish-brown topsoil made up of particles of silt & clay, usually carried by the wind
China's Yellow River Basin
267
moraine
piles of rocky debris left by melting glaciers
some form long ridges of land, others form dams that create glacial lakes
268
water cycle
regular movement of water from ocean to air to ground & back to the ocean
also groundwater (absorption, aquifers)
can be kept from water cycle by humans - even if we return it, we still change it elementally
269
evaporation
process of converting into vapor
from oceans/lakes/streams
caused by sun's heat
warm = more
cold = less
270
condensation
the process of excess water vapor changing into liquid water when warm air cools
clouds, fog
271
precipitation
moisture tht falls to the earth as rain, sleet, hail, or snow
272
desalination
the removal of salt from seawater to make it usable for drinking & farming
expensive
have to need it and be rich (Saudi Arabia)
273
groundwater
water w/in the earth that supplies wells & springs
freshwater which lies beneath the earth's surface
comes from rain & melted snow that filters thru the soil & from water that seeps into the ground from lakes & rivers
274
aquifer
underground water-bearing layers of porous rock, sand, or gravel
can be used for wells
freshwater
formed by gravity & path of least resistence; and time & pressure
275
terrestrial
of, relating to, or composed of land
276
tectonic plate
the 2 sub-layers of the earth's crust that move, float, & sometimes fracture & whose interaction causes continental drift, earthquakes, volcanoes, mtns, & oceanic trenches
drift as a reaction to mantle movement
277
plate tectonics
theory of global tectonics in whicht the lithosphere is divided into a # of crustal plates, each of which moves on the plastic asthenosphere more or less independently to collide w/, slide under, or move past adjacent plates
entire menu of subterranean activity (earthquakes, subduction, etc.)
278
meteorology
the study of weather & weather forecasting
279
place
a particular space w/ physical & human meaning
answers "what is like there?"
280
regions
places united by specific characteristics
281
movement
ppl, goods, & ideas travel to other places & create diffusion
282
location
a specific place on Earth
answers "where is it?"
283
ecosystem
the complex community of interdependent living things in a given environment
284
GIS
geographic information systems
comp tools for processing & organizing details & satellite images w/ other pieces of info
used to cross-reference diff themes of data
most common = GPS
285
formal region
a region defined by a common characteristic, such as production of a product
organized by identifiable commonalities
286
functional region
a central point & the surrounding territory linked to it
organized by central & connected surrounding areas
287
perceptual region
a region defined by images, feelings, & ideas rather than by objective data
288
invasive species
an alien species whose introduction does/is likely to cause econ/environ harm/harm to human health
"alien species" means, w/ respect to a particular ecosystem, any species tht is not native to that ecosytem
only a few likely to survive
289
continental drift
the theory tht the continents were once joined & then slowly drifted apart
Pangea broke apart into smaller continents which in turn drifted and, in some places, recombined
290
continental shelf
the part of a continent that extends underwater
narrow in some places & wide in others
291
continental slope
a steep slope separating a continental shelf & a deep ocean basin
292
absolute location
exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates
the exact position of a place on the earth's surface
293
relative location
location in relation to other places
Ex: "in southern Alaska"
294
human-environmental interaction
the study of the interrelationship b/w ppl & their physical envrion
where Delaware Bay meets Christina River - looks diff than it used to;the bridge made it work diff-ly cuz ppl on both sides could access each side
295
planets
My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, (Pluto)
296
terrestrial planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
have solid, rocky crusts
warmer, smaller
297
gaseous planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
colder, much more gaseous & less dense than the terrestrial planets, even tho they're larger in diameter
each is itself like a miniature solar system w/ orbiting moons & thin, encircling rings
298
AU
Astronomical Unit
93 million mi / 150 million km
299
why has Mars been chosen by NASA as the best prospect for exploration?
may once have harbored life; similar atmosphere to earth; water; easier to land on; relatively cool
300
what conditions must humans create in space travel for sustained life?
temperatures w/in a limited range, liquid water, atmosphere w/ some (but not too much) oxygen, food sources w/ carbs, protein, & certain minerals, a magnetic shield to block UV rays, ability to grow food (greenhouse - enclosed space, sunlight, water cycle), gravity, leisure space
301
erosion of river bends
turn of rivers usually eroded & exposed, widening over time
loess
302
water erosion
fast-moving water = most significant cause of erosion
beings when springwater & runwater flow off the land downhill in streams; cuts into land
resulting sediment = sandpaper, grinding away the surface of rocks along the stream's path
over time, forms gully, then a V-shaped valley, & sometimes canyons
coastal cliffs, beaches, sinkholes
303
wind erosion
movement of dust, sand, & soil from 1 place to another
plants help protect but in dry places where ppl have cut down trees & plants, winds pick up large amounts of soil & blow it away
Great Plains in central US during 1930s --\> dust storms (droughts, deserts)
beneftis: dust carried often forms large deposits of mineral-rich soil
304
glacial erosion
great weight of glaciers causes them to move slowly downhill/spread outward
pick up rocks & soil in their paths
change the landscape, destroying forests, carving out valleys, altering the courses of rivers, wearing down mtntops, long ridges of land, dams, glacial lakes, moraines
305
based on earth's current tectonic plate movements, what topographical changes would u expect to see in the distant future?
more land in North Atlantic, California's coast line separated & narrower cuz of San Andreas Fault
wind & water erosion consistnetly help out mountains (Appalachians) erode down, while others continue to grow
India changes shape cuz of INdian Ocean -\< monsoons
306
which 4 plates r pulling apart?
Eurasian, North Am, South Am, & African
307
what would happen if mantle stopped circulating
plate tectonics would cease, so mtns, volcanoes, etc. would stop forming. Eventually, because of erosion & weathering, the earth's surface would just flatten out
## Footnote
theoretically the plates would fuse, but in reality, the planet would go BOOM
308
what changes in the water cycle must occur in order for droughts to occur?
rate of evaporation would increase & rate of precipitation would decrease
change in wind patterns
El Nino/La Nina
309
weathering
the process that breaks down rocks on the earth's surface into smaller pieces
310
physical weathering
occurs when large masses of rock r physically broken down into smaller pieces
water seeps into cracks in rock & freeze, expand, rock psits
erosion
311
chemical weathering
changes the chem makeup of rocks, transforming their minerals/combining them w/ new elements
water + CO2 easily dissolves certain rocks (limestone)
caves
2 chem reactions encounter each other
312
weather
condition of the atmosphere in 1 place during a limited period of time
313
climate
the weather patterns that an area typically experiences over a long period of time
314
earth's axis
an imaginary line running from the nrth pole to the sth pole thru the planet's center
tilted at an angle of abt 23.5o
cuz of this tilt, not all places receive same amount of direct sunlight @ same time
earth rotates on axis every 24 hours
315
temperature
the measure of how hot/cold a place is
areas w/ large amounts of direct sunlight = warmer vice versa
316
revolution
trip around the sun
takes a few hours more than 365 days to complete one (leap year)
317
seasons
caused by earth's revolutin & tilt which cause changes in the angle & amount of sunlight that reach diff locations on the planet
reversed nrth & sth of Equator
318
equinox
around March 21 & Sep. 23rd
sun's rays fall directly on the Equator
"equal night"
daylight & nighttime hours =
in northernhem, marks beginning of spring & fall
319
Tropic of Cancer
23.5oN
northernmost pt on the earth to receive the direct rays of the sun
320
summer solstice
June 21, when directy rays hit Tropic of Cancer
marks beginning of summer in northrn hemisphere
longest day of sunlight
321
Tropic of Capricorn
23.5oS
southernmost lat that gets direct sunlight
322
which plates used to be part of different plates?
## Footnote
Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Carribean Plates
## Footnote
believed to be created by the same collisions that formed the Andes, etc.
323
winter solstice
Dec. 22
day of shortest daylight in Northern Hem
begins winter
when sun's direct rays hits Tropic of Capricorn
324
greenhouse effect
the capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere to trap heat, thereby warming the earth
natural phenomenon necessary for our existence but negative connotation cuz of global warming
325
global warming
gradual warming of the earth & its atmosphere tht may be caused in part by pollution & an increase in the greenhouse effect
scientists say tht the increase in temp may have disastrous effects, causing glaciers & ice caps to melt & raising the levels of the world's oceans - higher water levels could flood coastal cities & submerge smaller islands
326
low latitudes/Tropics
b/w the Tropics of Cancer & Capricorn
portions receive the direct rays of the sun yearround
warm-hot climates
47o
327
high latitudes
polar areas
above & below Arctic & Antarctic Circles
328
Arctic Circle
lat 66.5oN
continuous daylight/twilight from March 20-Sep. 23rd
329
Antarctic Circle
66.5oS
continous day/twlight for other 6 months of year
330
mid-latitudes
most variable weather
b/w Tropics & Circles
in summer, warm air from Tropics
in winter, cold air from high lats
generally temperate cimate w/ dramatic seasonal weather changes
86o
331
elevation & climate
atmosphere thins as altitude increases
thinner air retains less heat
332
wind
air moving across the face of the earth
occur cuz the sun heats up the atmosphere & surface unevenly; rising warm air = low pressure & falling cool air = high pressure; cool air replaces warm rising air
distributes heat across planet
333
prevailing winds
wind in a region that blows in a fairly constant pattern
direction determiend by lat & affected by earth's movement
334
trade winds
blow from NE toward Equator from abt 30oN & from southeast towards Equator from abt 30oS
in Tropics
335
westerlies
prevailing winds in mid-lats
blow diagonally west to east b/w abt 30oN & 60oN and b/w 30oS & 60oS
should actually be called southwesterlies
336
polar easterlies
high lats
diagonally east west, pushing cold air toward mid lats
337
doldrums/horse latitudes
at Equator, global winds diverted north & south, leaving narrow, generally windless bands called doldrums
2 other narrow bands just north of Tropic of Cancer & just south of Tropic of Capricorn
named horse lats cuz sailors sometimes threw horses off the ship to get out
338
Nor'Easter
a storm/wind blowing from the northeast, esp. in New England
huge storm of rain/snow
339
how r winds named?
named for direction they come from & from early days of sailing
trade winds = ability to move trading ships thru the region
340
Coriolis Effect
cuz Earth rotates to east, global winds displaced clockwise in Northrn Hem & counterclockwise in Southrn Hem
cause prevailing winds to blow diagonally instead of vertically/horizontally
341
ocean current
stream of either cold/warm water tht moves in a definite direction thru an ocean
caused by earth's rotation, changes in air pressure, & diff's in water temp
also affected by Coriolis effect
cold water from polar -\> Equator, warming up as it moves thru Tropics
warm water away from Equator
cold ocean currents cool lands, warm ocean currents bring warmer temps
342
El Niño
recurring phenomena
a preiodic reversal of the pattern of ocean currents & water temps in the mid Pacific-region
frequency increased
normally low atmospheric pressure over western Pacifc rises & nromally high pressure over eastern Pac drops; causes trade winds to diminish/reverse direction -\> reverses equatorial ocean currents, drawing warm water from near Indonesia eat to Ecuador, where it spreads along Sth Am coast
linked to global warming
called La Nina if little
343
effects of El Nino
domino effect
precipitation increases along coasts of Nrth & Sth Am warming winters & increasing risk of floods
Hawaii = less winds & drier weather
Southeast Asia & Australia = drought & occasional massive forest fires
344
landforms & climate
large bodies of water = slower to heat & cool than land -\> water temps more uniform & constant; helps coastal lands
mtn ranges = influence precipiation & climate; rain shadow
345
rain shadow
dry area found on the leeward side of a mtn range
caused by wind blowing over ocean & pushed upward by mtn range; rising air cools & releases moisture; winds warmer & drier as they descend on leeward side
346
windward side
facing toward the direction from which the wind is blowing
347
leeward side
facing away from the direction from which the wind is blowing
348
natural vegetation
the plant life that grows in an area whre the natural environment is unchanged by human activity
indigenous
349
climate regions
tropical, dry, mid-lat, high lat, highlands
characterized by soils & natural vegetation
350
tropical climates
in/near the low latitudes/Tropics
tropical rain forest/tropical savanna
351
tropical rain forest climates
average temp of 80F
warm, humid air
almost daily rain; yearly rainfall averages abt 80in
lush vegetation altho the continual rain tends to leach nutrients from the soil
abundant wildlife
352
tropical rain forest vegetation
grows thickly in layers
canopy = tall teak/mahogany trees over shorter rees & bushes
forest floor = vines & shadeloving plants
largest forest = in Amazon River basin, South Am
353
tropical savanna climates
dry winters & wet summers
high year-round temps
in dry season, ground = covered w/ clumps of coarse grass. fewer trees than rain forests
354
dry climates
desert, steppe
355
desert climates
dry areas w/ sparse plant life
yearly rainfall rarely exceeds 10in
temps vary widely from day-night & season-season
occur in just under 1/3 of earth's total land area; Sahara = over almost the entire northern 1/3 of Africa
scattered shrub & cactus, plants tht tolerate low humidity & wide temp ranges
sometimes oasis
some deserts have dunes/rocky surfaces; others have fertile soil tht can yield crops thru irrigation
356
oasis
a lush area of vegetation in an otherwise dry climate
fed by groundwater
357
steppe climates
often bordering deserts
dry, largely treeless grasslands
yearly rainfall averages 10-21 inches
358
mid-lat climates
variable weather patterns & seasonal changes that give rise to a variety of natural vegetation
marine west coast, Mediterranean, humid subtropical, humid continental
359
marine west climate
along western coastlines, b/w lats 30 & 60 north & south
oceans winds bring cool summers & damp winters
abundant rainfall
coniferous & deciduous trees
mixed forest typical w/ both kinds of trees
360
coniferous trees
Ex: evergreens
cones, needle-shaped leaves, & keep foliage thruout winter
361
deciduous
Ex: oak, elm, maple
broad leaves tht change color & drop in autumn
362
chaparral
thickets of woody bushes & short trees
363
Mediterranean climate
lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea
mild, rainy winters & hot, sunny summers
natural vegetation = chaparral
any coastal mid-lat areas w/ similar climate & vegetation
364
prairies
inland grasslands
called savanna in tropical areas
365
humid subtropical climate
short, mild winters
nearly year-round rain
wind patterns & high pressure related to nearby oceans keep humidity levels high
prairies & forests of evergreen & deciduous trees
366
humid continental climate
some mid-lat regions of the Northern Hem
landforms influence climate more than winds, preciptation, / ocean temps do
don't experience moderating effect of ocean winds cuz of their northerly continental locations
the farther south, the longer & more severe the snowy winters & the shorter & cooler the summers
vegetation = similar to marine west coast areas, with evergreens outnumbering deciduous trees in the northernmost areas of the region
367
northerly continental
inland
368
high lat climates
freezing temps common
amount & variety of vegetation limited
subarctic & tundra & ice cap
369
subarctic climate
just south of Arctic Circle
winters bitterly cold & summers short & cool
world's widest temp ranges
in parts, only a thin layer of surface soil thaws each summer; below is permafrost
brief summer growing seasons = everreens
370
permafrost
permantently frozen subsoil
371
tundra climate
closer to polar regions
very cold
winter darkness & bitter cold last for 1/2 year & sun's indirect rays bring constant summer light but little heat
layer of thawed soil even thinner than in subarctic
trees can't establish roots so vegetation = low bushes, very short grasses, mosses, & lichens
372
ice cap regions
constantly covered by more than 2 miles thick snow & ice
lichens only vegetations tht can survive here
monthly temp's average below freezing
373
highlands climates
elevation can determine a climate region, regardless of lat
higher elevation = cooler temps
natural vegetation also varies w/ elevation
mixed forests generally @ bases of mtn ranges
higher up, meadows w/ small trees, shrubs, & wildflowers line mtnsides
374
climatic changes
scientists study the interrelationships among ocean temps, greenhouse gases, wind patterns, & cloud cover
## Footnote
during last 1-2 million years, earth passed thru 4 ice ages
375
ice ages
eras when glaciers covered large areas of the planet's surface
376
hypothesis for ice ages
the earth absorbed less solar energy cuz of variations in the sun's output of energy/cuz of variations in the earth's orbit
## Footnote
dust clouds from volcanic activity reflected sunlight back into space, cooling the atmosphere & lowering surface temps
377
human effects on climate
acid rain can destroy forests; fewer forests = climatic change
smog
dams & river diversions, intended to supply water to dry areas, may cause new areas to flood/dry out & affect climate over time
378
acid rain
burning fossil fuels releases gases tht mix w/ water in the air, forming acids tht fall in rain & snow
eats away @ the surfaces of buildings, kills fish, & can even destroy entire forests
379
smog
a visible chemical haze in the atmosphere that endangers ppl's health
exhaust released from burning fossil fuels in cars & factories is heated in the atmosphere by the sun's ultraviolet rays
380
accessibility
how easily gotten is a resource?
## Footnote
resources available vs. #ppl/mi2
381
population distribution map
shows were ppl live & where the densest populations are
382
superfamily/language family
is to language structure as a clan is to family structure
## Footnote
large groups of languages having similar roots
383
Indo-European superfamily
Latin(romance) -\> Spanish, French, Italian
Germanic -\> Swedish, German, English
Slavic
384
language
dynamic & ever-changing
## Footnote
key element in cultural development - communicates info & experiences & passes on cultural values & traditions
385
manners of diffusion
migration/forced migration (enslaved AA's)
gov'ts, wars, persecution, famine
positive factors: climate, economy, religious/political freedoms
trade
army migrating
386
Why is the global population growing so rapidly?
birthrates have not declined as fast as death rates
387
death rate
the number of deaths per year for every 1,000 ppl
388
birthrate
he number of births per year for every 1,000 ppl
389
demography
study of populations
390
natural increase/growth rate
of a population
birthrate - death rate
391
zero population growth
birthrate and death rate are equal
392
doubling time
number of years it takes a population to double in size
## Footnote
reduced to only 25 years in some part of Asia, Africa, and Latin America; average doubling time of a wealthy industrialized country can be more than 300 years
393
challenges of population growth
difficulty of producing enough food
shortages of water, housing, and clothing
uneven distribution of age: lots of infants & young children who can't contribute to food production
394
how has technology gotten btr for population?
fertilizers improve crop yields
irrigation systems help increase amount of land available for farming
new varieties of plants (wheat & rice) created to withstand severe conditions & yield more food
395
negative population growth
the annual death rate exceeds annual birthrate
econ consequences just as serious as high growth rates
diffclt to find enough workers
often must be recruted from other countries = tensions b/w "host" pop & newcomers
396
population distribution
pattern of human settlement
uneven
related to earth's geography -almost everyone on Earth lives on a little less than 1/3 of it; fertile soil, water, & climate w/out harsh extremes
Europe & Asia most densely populated
397
metropolitan areas
cities & their surrounding urbanized areas
398
population density
average # of ppl living on a square mile/square km of land
total pop of a country / total land area (or land that can be used to support the population)
cuz average, doesn't account for uneven population distribution w/in a country
399
migration
movement of ppl from place to place
400
urbanization
the resulting overpopulation of city populations brought about by migration and the changes that come with this increase in population
competition for resources up -\> morals down, crime up, literacy down, disease up, sanitation down, drug abuse up, life exptectancy down
401
causes of urbanization
desire of rural ppl to find jobs & a better life in more prosperous urban areas
402
refugee
person who flees to another country to escape persecution or disaster
403
dialect
a local form of a language tht differs from the main language
## Footnote
diff's: pronunciation & meaning of words
404
religion
source of conflict
helps find sense of identity
influences daily life: practice of moral values, celebrations
shaped painting, sculpture, architecture, music & dance
Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam
405
social system
every culture includes a social system in which the members of the society fall into various smaller groups
develops to help members of a culture work together to meet basic needs
in all cultures family = most important group
also social classes
ethnic groups
406
social classes
groups of ppl ranked according to ancestry, wealth, education, or other criteria
407
ethnic group
made up of ppl who share a common language, history, place of origin, encestry(genetics), or combo of these elements
408
culture region
division of the earth based on a variety of factors, including gov't, social groups, economic systems, language, or religion
409
cultural diffusion
the spread of new knowledge & skills from 1 culture to another
blend of cultures
everchanging
ur absence changes where u come from
410
agricultural revolution
nomads gathering food ⇒ farmers producing food
411
nomads
groups of herders who had no fixed home but who moved from place to place in search of food, water, & grazing land
412
civilizations
highly organized city-based societies with an advanced knowledge of farming, trade, gov't, art, & science
413
culture hearths
centers where cultures developed & from which ideas & traditions spread outward
## Footnote
Nile Valley, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, Yellow River Valley - all from farming settlements in areas w/ mild climate & fertile land & located near major river/source of water
414
Mesopotamia
"land b/w 2 river" -\> Tigris/Euphrates Rivers
modern day Iraq
5,500 years ago
415
Nile River Valley
5,11 years ago
Egypt
416
Indus River Valley
4,500 years ago
Pakistan
417
Yellow River Valley
3500 years ago
China
418
eutrophication
the over-enrichment of a body of water from industrial & human use
over feds the algae -\> oxygen sucking, & organisms inside die
type of pollution
419
specialization & civilization
surplus food - less need for everyone to farm; able to develop other ways of making a living; new tech, metalworking, shipbuilding(long-distance trade)
## Footnote
wealth from trade -\> rise of cities & complex social systems
420
industrial revolution
1700s & 1800s
some countries began to industrialize, using power-driven machines & factories to mass-produce goods
econ changes - goods could be produced quickly & cheaply
social changes - ppl left farms, cities larger; harsh working & living conditions
421
information revolution
end of 1900s
## Footnote
computers made it possible to store huge amounts of info & send info all over world in an instant, linking cultures
422
natural resource
substance from the earth that is not made by ppl but can be used by them for food, fuel, or other necessities
## Footnote
renewable/nonreweable
423
renewable resources
cannot be used up or can be replaced naturally or grown again in a relatively short amount of time
## Footnote
Ex: wind, sun, water, forests, & animal life
424
nonrenewable resources
can't be replaced
## Footnote
minerals & fossil fuels
425
conservation
immediate goal = to manage vital resources carefully so that ppl's present needs r met
long-term goal = ensure tht the needs of future generations r met
environmental experts have encouraged ppl to replace their dependence on fossil fuels w/ the use of renewable energy sources
426
hydroelectric power
a renewable energy source generated from falling water
427
solar energy
power produced by the sun's heat
## Footnote
requires large, expensive equipment, so not yet an economical alternative to other energy sources
428
nuclear power
electricity created by nuclear energy, the power made by creating a controlled atomic reaction
## Footnote
produces dangerous waste products
429
economic development
most natural resources not evenly distributed throughout earth
affects the global economy, so countries specialize in the econ activiites best suited 2 their resources
4 types of activites: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
430
primary economic activities
involve taking/using natural resources directly form earth
farming, grazing, fishing, forestry, & mining
take place near the natural resources being used - coal mining occurs @ site of coal deposit
431
secondary economic activities
use raw materials to produce something new & more valuable
manufacturing automobiles, assembling electronic goods, producing electric power, or making pottery
occur close to the resource/close to the market for the finished good
432
tertiary economic activities
don't involve directly acquiring & remaking natural resources - instead provide services to ppl & businesses
## Footnote
doctors, teachers, lawyers, truckers, & store clerks --\> all professiona, wholesale, or retail services
433
quaternary economic activities
concerned w/ processing, management, & distribution of info
vitally important to modern economies tht have been transformed in recent years by comp revolution
"white collar" professionals working in educations, gov't, business, info processing, & research
434
developed countries
econ activites help influence a country's level of development
country tht has a great deal of technology & manufacturing
US
most ppl work in manufacutring/service industries & enjoy a high standard of living
farmers in these countries engage in commercial farming, raising crops & livestock to sell in the market; cuz of modern techniques, only small percentage of these countries' workers is needed to grow feed to feed entire populations
435
developing countries
countries working toward greater manufacturing & technology
mainly in Africa, Asia, & Latin America
agriculture remains dominant - despite much commercial farming, most farmers inthese countries engage in subsistence farming so most ppl in these countries = poor
436
subsistence farming
growing only enough food for family needs
437
industrialization
transition from an agricultural society to one based on industry
has transormed once largely agricultural countries
Ex: China & Malysia
438
downside of developing countries
global influence of develope(ed?) countries has sparked resentment in some developing countries
## Footnote
militant groups have tried to strike back by engaging in terrorism - small in size & often limited in resources, these groups seek to use the fear unleashed by violence to heighten their influence to promote change
439
terrorism
the use of violence to create fear in a given population
440
world trade
unequal distribution of natural resources promotes a complex network of trade among countries
countries export their specialized products, trading them to other countries tht can't produce those goods
when countries can't produce as much as they need of a good, they import it. that country, in turn, may buy the first country's products, making the 2 countries trading partners
441
multinational companies
major stimulus to world trade
a firm tht does business in many places thruout the world
usually headquartered in a developed country & often locate their manufacturing/assembly operations in developing countries w/ low labor costs
442
barriers to trade
gov't tries to manage its country's trade to benefit its own economy :
some add a tariff to the price of goods tht r imported which influences ppl to buy products made in their home country
might put a strict quota, or # limit, on the quantity of a particular product tht can be imported from a particular country
may even impose embargo
443
embargo
bans trade w/ another country altogether as a way to punish that country for political/economic diff's
444
free trade
the removal of trade barriers so that goods can flow freely b/w countries
GATT
around world, several countries have joined together to create regional free trade agreements NAFTA
445
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT)
first international agreement to promote free trade
## Footnote
in 1995 became World Trade Organization (WTO), to which most countries now belong
446
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Agreement
elimintes all trade barriers to 1 another's goods
447
EU
European Union
largest trading bloc
includes many of the countries of Europe
many members have adopted a regional currency, the euro, to extend their cooperative efforts
448
pollution
the existence of impure, unclean, or poisonous substances in the air, water, or land
## Footnote
449
water pollution
Earth's bodies of water r normally renewable, purifying themselves over time, but this natural cycle can be interrupted by human activity
tankers & offshore rigs can cause oil spills
industries may dump chemical waste tht enters & pollutes the water supply
feritlizers & pesticides from farms can seep into groundwater & cause harm, as can animal waste & untreated sewage
450
land pollution
occurs where chemical waste poisons fertile topsoil or solid waste is dumped in landfills
## Footnote
radioactive waste from nuclear power plants & toxic runoff from chemical processing plants can also leak into the soil & cause contamination
451
air pollution
main source = burning of fossil fuels by industries & vehicles
burning fuel gives off poisonous gases tht can seriously damage ppl's health
acidic chemicals in air pollution combine w/ precipitation to form acid rain
452
alluvial soil
a fine-grained fertile soil deposited by water flowing over flood plains or in river beds
accelerates erosion, creating deltas
the sediments cause the water to flow aroud them, creating a triangle shape(delta)
453
tidal river
river near ocean
a river whose flow and level is influenced by tides
when @ low tide, sediments blown away by wind or carried by water to farmland
454
path of least resistance
No matter where the river, it will take the path of least resistance and flow downhill as rapidly as possible.
455
belt
A geographic region that is distinctive in a specific respect
## Footnote
Delaware is in chemical & credit card belt
456
degrees of polar climate
47
## Footnote
prevailing winds = northeasterlies & southeasterlies
457
degrees of northern temperate climate
43
458
biosphere
can be found in lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
## Footnote
the part of the earth where life exists
459
erosion of river bends
turn of rivers usually eroded & exposed, widening over time
460
what causes a place to be cold
high elevation & high latitude
461
hurricane
huge churning storm @ sea
low pressure air pockets over Iowa, Nebraska, etc. dont hold water; high pressure gulf storm air clouds join w/ it & they dance
462
Hurricane scale name
Saffir-Simpson Scale
463
Category 1 Hurricane
weak
75-96 mph
niminal damage to vegetation(broken branches, stems broken)
464
Category 4 Hurricane
very strong
131-155 mph
extreme structural damage
New Orleans
similar to F2 tornado
465
Category 5 Hurricane
devastating
\> 155 mph
catastrophic building failures possible
Philippines: 190 mph highest ever
similar to F3 tornado
466
tornado
a very local whirling storm
doesn't need water
a violent storm with winds whirling around a small area of extremely low pressure, usually characterized by a dark funnel-shaped cloud causing damage along its path
land based whirling dervish
467
Tornado Scale Name
Fujita Tornado Scale
468
F4 Tornado
Devastating
207-260mph
Well-consturcted houses leveled; structures w/ weak foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown & large missiles generated
469
F5 Tornado
Finger of God
261-318mph
Strong frame houses lifted & carried; auto-sized missiles; trees gone; steel-reinforced structures badly damaged
destroys anything it touches
