What is ‘culture’?
six senses of Assmann
In the Introduction to her book, Einführung in die Kulturwissenschaft, Aleida Assmann explains
six meanings of the term ‘culture’. In its second sense, ‘culture’ is used for geographical and
political entities (such as nations).
A. What is typically regarded as constitutive (fundamental) for such entities?
B. We have come to think of (other) national cultures as homogenous and fixed, but is this
actually the case? Explain!
A: languages, mentalities, forms of art,ways of life
distinction
such entities seem homogenous above all from the outside; if you look at them more closely, it becomes apparent that they are actually heterogeneous, hybrid, and open: their unity is merely a fiction
B: No, everchanging. Society is constantly changing and evolving, some traditions may last (Christmas), but others are lost or are changed.
What is ‘high culture’?
high culture =
“forms of culture, such as visual arts, opera,
classical music, and literature“
“deemed valuable and worthy of appreciation“
-Daenekindt
What do you know about the development of cultural studies in Britain?
- Development of cultural studies since the 1950s
- emerged from a crisis in the humanities Group of Marxist-inspired academics: Stuart Hall, Raymond Williams, Edward Thompson, Richard Hoggart against F.R. Leavis’ elitist concept of bourgeois high culture
- Leavis: the ‘pope of a sacralising canon politics’ as the foundation of the humanities For Leavis, culture was a matter for a narrow elite
- Birmingham School radically distanced itself from this narrow and elitist concept of culture
Culture was not the embalmed heritage of a national tradition, but rather the arena of struggles for power, money, recognition, and prestige - Expansion of the concept of culture Aleida Assmann, Einführung in die Kulturwissenschaft, 21f. cultural studies saw itself as a response to social change cultural studies understand culture and politics as very closely connected
Who is Raymond Williams? What is characteristic of his concept of culture?
Raymond Williams (1921–1988) was a Welsh cultural theorist and key figure in cultural studies. His work explored the connections between culture, society, and power, with major works like Culture and Society and Marxism and Literature.
Lower class born, scholarship boy studied at Trinity College and Cambridge.
Williams saw culture as a “whole way of life,” encompassing not just art but everyday practices and beliefs. He emphasized its dynamic, lived nature and its role in social change and power structures.
Explain the significance of Raymond Williams’ biographical background for his concept of
culture.
- biographical background significantly influenced his concept of culture.
- Growing up in a working-class family in a small Welsh village shaped his belief that culture is not limited to elite art and intellectual pursuits but includes the everyday lives, practices, and values of ordinary people.
- was exposed to both class divisions and broader social dynamics, deepening his interest in the relationship between culture and power.
This personal connection to working-class life informed his view of culture as a “whole way of life,” emphasizing its inclusivity and the lived experiences of all social classes. His background also fueled his critique of traditional, hierarchical notions of culture, advocating for a more democratic understanding of cultural production and its role in shaping society.
Explain the title of Williams’ essay (“Culture is Ordinary”)
- encapsulates his argument that culture is not confined to high art or elite activities but is part of everyday life and accessible to all.
- Williams challenges traditional views that separate “high” culture (e.g., fine art, classical music) from the “ordinary” practices of working-class communities.
- emphasizes the inclusivity of culture, viewing it as both the shared values and traditions of a community and the individual meanings people create.
- Williams argues that culture is ordinary because it emerges from lived experience and is shaped by everyone, not just a privileged few, making it a vital part of societal change and understanding.
Explain Stuart Hall’s criticism of the humanities and a traditional approach to literature/culture.
- criticized the traditional approach to the humanities and literature for being overly elitist, Eurocentric, and focused on “high culture” at the expense of broader cultural practice
- argued that this approach prioritized the works of a limited canon of authors (often white, male, and Western) and ignored the cultural experiences and expressions of marginalized groups.
- Hall believed this perspective treated culture as static and universal, failing to account for its dynamic, contested, and socially constructed nature.
- had a positive opinion about the shift toward cultural studies, emphasizing the importance of popular culture, media, and everyday life as sites where power and ideology operate.
- For Hall, culture should be analyzed critically to uncover how it reflects and reinforces structures of power, identity, and inequality.
Explain the similarities in Raymond Williams’ and Stuart Hall’s views of culture and cultural
studies
- Culture as Ordinary and Inclusive
- Culture as Dynamic
- Culture reflects and reinforces power structures
Explain the title of Hall’s essay (“The Emergence of Cultural Studies and the Crisis of the Humanities”).
Crisis -> Hall critiques the humanities for their elitism and focus on a narrow canon of “high culture” texts, which failed to address issues like social inequality, race, gender, and class. This narrow scope, he argues, created a “crisis” by making the humanities less relevant to contemporary social realities
Emergence of Cultural Studies-> how cultural studies arose as a response to the limitations of traditional academic disciplines like the humanities. Cultural studies broadened the focus of cultural analysis to include popular culture, media, and everyday life, emphasizing the role of culture in shaping power, identity, and ideology.
We read and discussed Stuart Hall’s essay “The Emergence of Cultural Studies and the Crisis
of the Humanities”. Is it still relevant today?
- still ongoing Eurocentrism
- mostly white men that are read
- cultural studies offers critical tools that help to unravel and reflect culture and the power it holds
- rise of social media and globalized cultural exchange adds new layers to Hall’s insights about culture’s role in shaping ideologies and identities
- issues like racsim within education demand interdisciplinary approaches that cultural studies pioneered.
We read and discussed Raymond Williams’ essay “Culture is Ordinary”. Is it still relevant
today?
- his ideas support ongoing efforts to recognize the cultural contributions of diverse and marginalized groups.
- critique of social classes
- everyday culture in the digital age: digital platforms amplify how everyday practices and meanings are created, shared, and contested
- culture is tied to class and material
Which factors and practices contribute to the construction of national identities? (Give
examples)
- shared history and collective memory (Blitz war against Nazis)
- common language
- symbols and rituals (Flag, American Eagle, Pictures of President, Hymne before Games)
- education and cultural narratives
- media and popular culture
- geography and territory
- political systems and national institutions (monarchy in Britain)
- shared struggles or achievements (Apartheid, Civil Rights Movement)
How is nature used to establish a sense of the nation?
- nations often seem rooted in the
very nature that provides them with
their geographical space - the fit between nature and nation is made to seem natural
- meaning is attributed to territorial
space by artists and writers
How does John Storey explain Benedict Anderson’s ‘imagined community’?
a nation is imagined because the members of even the
smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-
members, meet them or even hear of them, yet in the
mind of each lives the image of their communion
– horizontal relations = relations of national belonging
(supposedly based on equality)
– vertical relations = relations of, e.g., social class,
ethnicity and generation
(relations of inequality)
horizontal relations must always work to control the potential disruptive effect of vertical relations
In spite of the existence of obvious inequalities, horizontal relations appear more important than vertical relations
Explain how television contributes to a sense of national belonging
- broadcasts national stories, historical events, and cultural practices that help shape a collective sense of identity.
- enables a common experience.
- can distribute to the national discourse
- helps to share and establish common values
- establishes routine behaviour that is shared by many (Storey referring to Anderson)
- collective past as a topic for TV
- linking a national audience to a national experience and a collective past
- address me in my living room as part of a nation and situate me in the rhythms of a national calendar
- shows, advertisements, and programs often reflect the core values of a nation, reinforcing a sense of unity and shared purpose.
- is a key medium for broadcasting national holidays, celebrations, and events that unite people.
- introduces viewers to local customs, cuisine, art, and music, helping foster a sense of belonging through cultural immersion.
- Sports broadcasts are a powerful tool for creating a sense of national belonging, especially during international events like the Olympics or the World Cup.
Explain how Antiques Roadshow can be interpreted as contributing to a sense of national
belonging by creating an “imagined community”.
- romanticizes Englishness
overt focus on the past and on culture - “overwhelming middle-
classness, its whiteness and
ist celebration of regions and certain
kinds of achievements associated with them - celebrating cultural heritage
- democratizing knowledge and value
- emphasizes values such as preservation, heritage, and continuity across generations
- Nationwide Connection through Local Stories
Explain the significance of war for identity constructions in the anglophone world
- war as defining moments in the construction of national identity, uniting people against a common enemy and providing a sense of purpose, pride, and belonging.
- War produces heroic narratives that are often used to define national values, patriotism, and collective memory.
- War-related rituals, such as remembrance ceremonies, serve as important moments for the construction of collective memory and national identity.
- wars often shape national identity through the creation of an “us vs. them” dichotomy
- War often leads to the consolidation of national unity, as citizens rally together to support the war effort.
Explain the significance of sport for identity constructions in the anglophone world.
“it‘s sports […] that capture the (national) imagination and
inspire the (national) passions of the masses“
sports “provide explicitly national parameters for the
organization and experience of collective belonging”
“symbolic repertoire of their respective nations – the flags,
the anthems, the colours and even the myths”
“fans momentarily become the embodiment of the nation”
“with their faces painted, flags draped over their shoulders,
and their t-shirts, scarves and jackets emblazoned in the
national colours – these fans physically encapsulate and
communicate national allegiances”
“the football team exemplifies and concretizes the nation.
And through television, the boundaries of this imagined
community extend far beyond the confines of the sporting
stadiums”
Explain the significance of performance for the construction of national identity.
- National anthems, played at significant public events, convey a sense of patriotism and unity, symbolizing shared national values and the historical struggles that have shaped the nation.
- In Ireland, traditional Irish dancing and music at cultural festivals reinforce the sense of continuity of Irish culture, particularly for the Irish diaspora, and contribute to a shared sense of identity rooted in historical traditions
- In the United States, performances such as the reenactment of historical events like the Fourth of July celebrations serve as rituals that commemorate the nation’s founding, reaffirming the shared values of liberty and independence.
- The Super Bowl in the United States is a major cultural performance that goes beyond sports; it includes music performances, national commercials, and celebrations that reinforce American cultural identity and bring people together in a collective national experience.
What is typical of the rhetoric politicians and heads of state use when they address the nation?
- emphasize the need for unity and collective action, especially during times of crisis or national importance.
- invoke symbols of national pride to reinforce loyalty to the country and its values.
- roots and routs
- family
- hostile other
- use of first-person plural pronouns
other expressions that emphasize togetherness - explicit references to the nation
- family/friends/neighbours
- values and national character
- horizontal and vertical relations
- traditions/continuity/timelessness
