1
Q
Tree plots (meta-analysis)
A
- stacks study results vertically with the interval shown horizontally
- If they are normalized zero means no difference was seen. If they are standardized 1 counts as “normal results”
- If a studies confidence interval crosses zero (or 1 as case maybe) realize that “no results” where something included in their analysis
2
Q
Analysing Data
A
- understand the participants, are there enough?
- ask if the independent variable was well controlled - if it is, does it replicate real life?
- does the mechanism proposed make sense?
- are there obvious problems with the study
3
Q
Appeal to Authority
Argumentum ad Verecundiam
A
- Belief in something based on the authority of the person without adequate supporting facts
- taking car advice from your dr
4
Q
heuristic
A
- A heuristic is a mental shortcut or problem-solving strategy that simplifies complex decisions or judgments by using approximate, ‘rule of thumb’ methods
5
Q
How can heuristics make people vulnerable to the appeal to authority?
A
- Allows people to make quick decisions
- leads to biases
- They also make us vulnerable to the appeal to authority argument, as they allow us to easily accept the advice or logic of another based on a rapid assessment of their competence.
6
Q
Thalidomide scandal
A
- Appeal to Authority example
- In the late 1950s and early 1960s, thalidomide was prescribed to pregnant women as a treatment for morning sickness. Pharmaceutical companies and medical professionals, considered authorities in their fields, assured the public that the drug was safe. However, thalidomide caused severe birth defects in thousands of children, leading to one of the most significant drug scandals in history.
7
Q
Why is the ‘appeal to authority’s argument considered a fallacy?
A
- The appeal to authority is considered a fallacy because the truth or validity of a claim is not necessarily correlated with the expertise or authority of the person making the claim.
- not all appeals to authority are fallacious
8
Q
What is an axiom?
A
An axiom is a statement or proposition that is accepted as true without proof, serving as a starting point for reasoning or arguments.
9
Q
What is an assumption?
A
An assumption is a premise or condition accepted without direct evidence, used as a basis for drawing conclusions or making decisions.
10
Q
Falsifiable
A
the ability / capacity to definitively prove something wrong
11
Q
Steps to make research iterative and self correcting
A
- start with knowledge or idea
- ask questions
- test theory / hypothesis
- Analyse results
- add to knowledge or question previous knowledge
- challenge/support previous ideas
12
Q
How is research designed to be self-correcting?
A
- peer review
- replication of studies
- the ongoing refinement of theories and models
13
Q
five reasons why a studies results and conclusions might be incorrect?
A
1) too few subjects > 30
2) to many tested (dependent) variables (more than 2)
3) weak statistical demands for significance p< 0.05
4) lack of proper blinding (subjects and or researchers)
5) ambiguous parameters used to constrain study (poorly defined boundaries, or states
14
Q
Thinking/ critical thinking
A
- Thinking: A complex act, composed of knowledge, and skills, by which the individual can relate to and
shape the environment more effectively than with intuition ( reaction ) alone. - Critical Thinking: Is an active and systematic attempt to understand and evaluate arguments and questions. (need to emphasis critique in critical
15
Q
Deductive reasoning
A
- starts with multiple general premises, and ends with a specific fact
- known to be precise
- tests hypothesis
- unfortunately it is limited by the accuracy of the premise and cannot generate new knowledge
16
Q
Inductive reasoning
A
- starts with specific observations and ends with general conclusions
- identifying patterns about the broader population or phenomena
- can lead to the generation of new knowledge
- used to create hypothesis
- unfortunately it is at risk of false generalizations
17
Q
Abductive Reasoning
A
- logical process that involves forming a hypothesis based on incomplete or limited information
- tries to find a conclusion from incomplete observations
18
Q
Analogical Reasoning
A
- process of drawing comparisons between similar situations, processes, or concepts to make
predictions or explanations - similarities and differences between both know and unknown phenomenons
19
Q
Bayesian Reasoning
A
- probabilistic approach to reasoning based on Bayes’ theorem, which involves updating the probability of a hypothesis as new evidence becomes available
- means that scientists can make predictions in uncertainty
20
Q
What is a Worldview?
A
A worldview is a set of beliefs, values, and assumptions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and human existence that shape the way an individual perceives the world.
21
Q
What is a worldview?
A
- A worldview is a set of beliefs, values, and assumptions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and human existence that shape the way an individual perceives the world
22
Q
How do Worldviews influence research paradigms?
A
- Worldviews can be linked to different research paradigms, which are overarching philosophical perspectives that guide research methods, theories, and models.
23
Q
What is Positivism?
A
Positivism is a worldview and philosophical stance rooted in the belief that knowledge can be acquired through empirical observation and objective, scientific methods.
24
Q
What are the key aspects of the Positivist Perspective?
A
- Empiricism
- Objectivity
- Determinism
- preference for Quantitative methods
25
What is Interpretivism?
- a worldview and philosophical stance that emphasizes the importance of understanding the subjective experiences, meanings, and interpretations of individuals and groups in social contexts.
- a critique of positivism, asserting
that social and cultural phenomena cannot be studied using the same scientific methods as those employed in the natural sciences
26
key aspects of Interpretivism
- Subjectivity
- context
- qualitative methods
- inductive reasoning
27
Pragmatism
a philosophical approach that emphasizes practical consequences, actions, and problem-solving in the pursuit of knowledge.
28
Key aspects of pragmatism
- practicality
- experiential learning
- flexibility
- pluralism
29
'Two-Eyed Seeing'
Two-Eyed Seeing refers to the idea of using both Indigenous ways of knowing and Western scientific knowledge when conducting research, teaching, and learning
30
Key aspects of 'two eyed seeing'
- Recognizing and valuing Indigenous ways of knowing
- encouraging collaboration
- Ensuring research is culturally appropriate
- Integrating Indigenous and Western scientific perspectives
31
What is Ontology in the context of scientific investigation?
- a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of being, existence, and reality.
- In scientific investigation, it deals with assumptions and beliefs about the nature of the phenomena being studied, including their properties, relationships, and classifications.
32
How does Ontology influence research methods and approaches?
Researchers' ontological beliefs can affect the choice of research methods, the formulation of hypotheses, and the interpretation of results. They may also influence the evaluation of evidence and the criteria for determining the validity or reliability of research findings.
33
What is Epistemology?
- Epistemology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge.
- In scientific investigation, it focuses on the methods, criteria, and assumptions used to acquire, justify, and validate knowledge about the phenomena being studied.
- Study of knowledge and belief
34
How does Epistemology guide research design and methodology?
Epistemological beliefs influence researchers' choices of research questions, methods, and data analysis techniques. They also help establish criteria for evaluating the quality, validity, and reliability of research findings.
35
What is a model in research?
In research, a model is a simplified representation of a system or phenomenon that aids in understanding, prediction, and decision-making.
36
How are models evaluated in Kinesiology research?
Models are assessed based on usefulness, accuracy, and simplicity. Evaluations consider criteria such as predictive accuracy and consistency with empirical data.
37
What is the difference between Theory and Model?
A theory is a detailed description that describes how a system may function and can incorporate models. A model is an example case representation of function and is usually a part of a theory that describes action within it.
38
What are the basic types of research in Kinesiology?
- qualitative
- quantitative
- mixed methods
39
What are the research themes in Kinesiology at the University of Calgary?
- Movement Science and Musculoskeletal Health,
- Injury Prevention, Sport Medicine and Rehabilitation
- Exercise Physiology and Nutrition in Health and Sport
- Psychosocial Aspects of Health and Sport.
40
five characteristics of research
1. systemic: plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate
2. logical: based on sound reasoning
3. empirical: decisions based on data
4. Reductive: general relationships established from data
5. replicable: actions are accurately recorded and can be reproduced by others
41
Scientific Method of Problem Solving
1) develop the problem
2) formulate hypothesis
3) data collection
4) analysing, encoding, interpreting results
5) report results
42
Tenacity
People cling to the beliefs they have thought to be true (arguments) can be superstitious behaviour
43
Authority
Established beliefs based on authoritarian figure believing what people in authority tell you
44
Serendipity
- Accidental findings – right place right time
- term coined by horace walpole in 1794
- not a scientific method of problem solving but it does happen frequently
45
Intuition
common sense
experience
46
The rationalistic method
deriving knowledge through reasoning
47
The empirical method
- systemic and controlled investigation "evidence based" data collection
48
Steps to conducting research
1) Outline research topic
2) articulate a problem
3) conduct a literature search
4) define research question/purpose statement
5) establish a testable hypothesis
6) identify testing strategies
7) design the study
49
Title of a research paper
- independent variable
- dependent variable
- population of interest
- Author list: listed in order of who contributed the most, EXCEPT the last author who is the principle investigator, lab owner, director
50
Introduction
- introduce topic
*what is being discussed
* why it is a concern
* build case based on what we know (foundational framework)
* majority of literature search goes here to create a rational
* We cannot build the case off appeal to authority or opinion, but rather the foundational research of others - cite them!
51
Methodology
- study design
* defines what type of questions this study can address or attempt to answer
- every study design is faced with a trade off (none are perfect)
- Operational definitions must occur here for variables
* unit of measurement
* when measuring occurs
* how is it recorded and expressed
52
Results
- what did you record in your study
- no interpretation of data in results section, just stating info
- numbers, units, scales clearly presented and easy to understand
53
Discussion
- now it is time to explain data
- what was the change in the DV
- how did this relate to hypothesis
- what were the unforeseen limitations, biases, confounding variables
- what could be done better
- where is this research heading
54
Conclusion
- Take away message
- connects to introduction
- suggests further research and improvements
- recommendations based on what was learned
55
Abstract
- written last, but appears first in the paper
- word limit 150-300
- does not include citations as its just info from the study
56
APA
- stands for American Psychological Society
- we use it because it incorporates the names of authors within the text which encourages correct attribution of authors and their work
57
APA title page
- 12 point times new roman font
- 1 inch margins
- double spaced
- title is a maximum of 12 words
- author name
- institution name
- course # and section
- date
58
APA format tables
- title
* italicized
* capitalized
* no period
- formatting
* no vertical lines
* double spaces
* horizontal lines around the heading row and the bottom
* no shading
59
Ethical Policies in Canada
- developed in response to historical practices of unethical treatment of people in research
- various policies have been developed to guide the ethical practices of canadian researchers
- TCPS 2 is informed by 3 principles
1. respect for persons
2. concern for welfare
3. justice
60
process of consent
- researchers must ensure free, informed, and ongoing consent throughout the research process
- various influences could compromise the extent to which participants consent is free and voluntary
- additional concerns with children and those living with cognitive impairments
61
Privacy and confidentiality
- Privacy: the right to be free from intrusion by others
- confidentiality: researchers obligation to safeguard entrusted information
62
Animal Research Ethics
- Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)
- Three R's tenet: Replace, Reduce, Refine
63
What are the steps of the Ethical Decision-Making Process?
1. Develop ethical sensitivity
2. consult code of ethics
3. search ethics literature
4. develop self-awareness
5. apply ethical principles
6. develop alternative courses of action
7. consult with colleagues
8. take action
9. reflect upon the result of your actions
64
Step 1: Develop Ethical Sensitivity
- recognizing that the decisions made as professionals affect other people
- being proactive can be useful in helping to avoid more challenging ethical situations in the future
65
Step 2: Consult Code of Ethics
- a professional code of ethics is designed specifically to offer professionals a guide in their ethical decision making
- helps ensure credibility of a profession
- offers protection for clients
- impossible for it to cover all situations that can be encountered
66
Step 3: Library / Literature search for ethical practices
- researcher searches previous version of similar designs to see how ethics was conducted or what the standard of care been established is
- ensures consistency
- offers best practice car
67
Step 4: Develop Self-Awareness
- critical to acknowledge the bias you bring to a situation and how that will impact decision making
68
Step 5: Apply Ethical Principles
- ethical principles help to shape most codes of ethics in kinesiology-related professions
69
Step 6: Develop Alternative Courses of Action
- when deciding, professionals should clearly detail the probable cost benefits of each action
- provides a chance to reflect on who might be impacted in each situation
70
Step 7: Consult With Colleagues
- offer perspectives and options that a professional has not already considered
- consider how to consult with a colleague about an ethical dilemma in a way that does not disclose the identity of a client
71
Step 8: Take Action
- once the first 7 steps have occured, it is time to implement the chosen plan
- This should include:
* informing the people who are going to be affected by your actions
* a commitment to assume responsibility for actions
- would I act this way if all of my colleagues were watching
72
Step 9: Reflect Upon the Results of Your Actions
- ethical virtues include qualities like:
* compassion, discernment, trustworthiness, integrity, conscientiousness
73
what is study design
- template for how the study is conducted
- focuses on how changes in the dependent variable are observed and recorded
- major branches are experimental and observational
74
Observational studies
- time is a fundamental characteristic
- cross sectional study = slice in time
- longitudinal study = descriptive over time
- case study = 1-3 ppl forward in time
- case control study = retrospective
75
Experimental studies
- researchers actively manipulate the participant or the environment (intervention)
- something is manipulated, controlled, altered
- something is being measured for a change
76
Types of Experimental studies
1. Pre-experimental = no randomization
2. Quasi-experimental = no true control group or no cross over design
3. RCT = contain randomization and control, considered the best
77
Mixed Method papers
- use qualitative and quantitative data for a more complete view on question
78
Qualitative papers
- generally descriptive in nature
- strategy of inquiry:
* narrative
* ethnography
* Phenomenology
* case study
* qualitative description
* grounded theory
- adds to empirical evidence
79
Quantitative papers
Observational
- cross-sectional
- longitudinal
- case study
- retrospective
Experimental
- RCT
- Quasi-experimental
- pre-experimental
80
Qualitative Research Purpose Statement
- Strategy of inquiry
- Philosophical – Research approach
- Central Phenomenon
- Participants population
- Research site - setting
81
Basic research
- In vitro
- typically done in lab
- can be a simulation
- large complex equipment
- test or clarify theory (cellular, molecular, genetic)
82
Applied
- tests theories in practice
- harder to isolate or control certain variables
- field research
- generally simpler equipment
- solving practical problems (clinical research, exercise physiology)
83
Descriptive Research
- describes events
- no true comparison between groups
- Examples:
* questionnaires
* interviews
* normative study
* case study
* observational research (qualitative)
- correlational studies
84
Analytical
- testing hypothesis or examine information through a framework
- may be experimental or observational
- differences in outcomes between groups
- Examples:
* reviews
* research synthesis
* historical
* philisophical
85
Review paper or research synthesis
highlights the main findings of other published journal articles in a way that serves to draw conclusions about a particular issue
86
Review Papers: Meta Analysis
- Meta-analysis is like a review paper but groups previous results to find more statistical power than individual studies
- methodology is specified in order to quantify the literature collected as data
- statistically test the prediction outlined in the introduction
KNES 213
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