1
Q
What is the purpose of the respiratory system? (6)
A
- Gas exchange from CVS and RS
- ATP creation through cellular respiration
- Vocalization
- Filtration
- Thermal regulation
- Blood pH regulation
2
Q
What does external respiration enatil?
A
The movement of gases between the environment and the cells of the body
3
Q
What does internal respiration entail?
A
The exchange of CO2 from cells and tissues to the CVS
4
Q
What is ventilation?
A
Breathing air in
5
Q
What are the 6 anatomical structures of the respiratory system?
A
- Nose structures
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchus
- Lungs
6
Q
What are the 9 structures of the upper respiratory system (nose)
A
- Nasal cavity
- Nasal meatuses
- Nasal vestibule
- Hard palate
- Soft palate
- Uvula
- Tubal tonsil
- Olfactory epithelium
- Olfactory nerves
7
Q
What is the structure and purpose of the nasal conchae?
A
Structure: superior, middle and inferior.
Purpose: allows for warmth, humidifying, filtration and olfaction (smell)
8
Q
What is the structure and purpose of the nasal meatuses
A
Structure: superior, middle and inferior
Purpose: allows direction of airflow, olfaction, drain mucus and tears, resonance of speech
9
Q
What is the purpose of he nasal vestibule?
A
Hair and sebaceous gland for protection, filtering, warmth and humidity, sense, touch and temperature
10
Q
What is the purpose of tubal tonsil?
A
Immune and lymphatic drainage
11
Q
What is the 5 purpose of the uvula?
A
Stops food moving into nasal cavity, speech, articulation, salivary glands, immune.
12
Q
What is the purpose of the hard and soft palate?
A
Close nasal passages during swallowing and speech (m&n)
13
Q
What is the purpose of the olfactory nerves and epithelium?
A
Detects odors and transmits sense of smell to brain
14
Q
What the 4 main structures of the pharynx?
A
- Pharyngeal tonsil
- Oropharynx (palatine and lingual tonsils)
- Isthmus of the fauces
- Laryngopharynx
15
Q
What is the purpose of isthmus of the fauces?
A
Passage that connects the oral cavity to the oropharynx
16
Q
What is the 4 purposes of the laryngopharynx?
A
- Food passage
- air passage
- protective sensory receptors
- Induces cough reflex
17
Q
What is the structures of the external neck?
A
- Body of hyoid bone
- Jugular notch
18
Q
What is the purpose of the hyoid bone?
A
Anchor point for swallowing and speech
19
Q
What is the purpose of the jugular notch?
A
To medically assess venous pressure, observing thyroid gland, radiological measurements
20
Q
What are the 2 main structures of the larynx?
A
- Epiglottis
- Thyroid cartilage
21
Q
What is the purpose of the epiglottis?
A
Trapdoor. Will close when breathing or eating. Stops things going down the wrong way
22
Q
What are the structures of the trachea?
A
- Annular ligaments
- Cartilage rings
- Carina
- Trachial muscle
23
Q
What is the purpose of the trachea?
A
Air tube. Cartilagenous tube in mediastinum.
Filters, warmth, humidifying.
Posterior trachial muscle allows for pressure from oesophagus
24
Q
What is the purpose of the goblet cell in the bronchi and trachea?
A
Mucus generation to trap pathogens
25
What are cilia?
Hairline, specialized protein structures that move rhythmically - collar escalator
26
What are the the structures of the pleural cavity?
1. Parietal pleura
2. Pleural cavity
3. Visceral pleura
27
What is the purpose of the visceral pleura?
1. Covers surface of lungs
2. Protects from friction
3. Maintains shape
4. Prevents lung collapse
5. Synchronizes movement with chest wall
28
What is the purpose of the parietal pleura?
1. Lines thoracic cavity
2. Protects from friction
3. Integrity of pleural cavity
29
what is the pupose of the pleural cavity?
1. contains ~25ml of pleural fluid, creates a moist, slippery surface so reduces friction
2. holds lungs tight against the thoracic wall
30
what is pleural effusion?
when fluid builds up in the pleural cavity due to injury or infection, reducing lung capacity
31
what are the main structures of the lungs?
1. superior lobes (both)
2. middle lobe (RHS only)
3. inferior lobes (both)
4. main bronchus (primary)
5. lobar bronchus (secondary)
6. segmental bronchus (tertiary)
7. cardiac notch
32
what symptoms would you experience if you have a bronchus blockage?
1. fatigue
2. cold
3. dizzy
4. others
33
what are the 6 structures of the bronchioles?
1. alveolar duct
2. alvoeli
3. terminal bronchiole
4. alveolar sac
5. respioratory bronchiole
6. smooth muscle
34
what is the difference between bronchus and bronchiole?
Bronchus have C-shaped cartilagenous rings and bronchioles don't
35
why is there smooth muscle on the bronchioles, rather than cartilage?
to allow for bronchicontriction or dialation to change air transfer, deopending on the boys need
36
explain the purpose of the alveolus
holds pockets of air to facilitate gas exchange between the the RS and CVS
37
describe the structure of the alveolus
1. wrapped in capillaries to allow gas exhange
2. Type 1 cells - simple squamous epithelial cells - diffusion
3. macrophage - protection
4. Type 2 - simple cuboidal epithelial cells - produces surfectant
38
what is profusion in the lungs?
blood delivered to alveoli to pick up CO2 and deliver O2 to the capillaries
39
what is the word for the cells in the alveolus?
pheumocytes
40
what are the muscles for respiration?
1. sternocleidomastoid
2. scalenes
3. internal and external intercostals
4. Oblique muscles of the abdomen
5. Rectus and transverse abdominis
6. diaphragm
41
what is eupnea?
quiet breathing, at rest. either diaphragmatic or costal
42
what is Hyperpnea?
fast, forced, active breathing
accessory muscles are activated to assist breathing
43
what are the muscles of exhalation?
1. internal intercostals depress ribs
2. abdominal muscles compress obdominal contents and reduce volume of thoracic cavity
external and internal obliques
transverse abdominis
rectus abdominis
44
what is Boyles Law?
the volume of gas and pressure are inversely proportional at a given temperature
45
what is intrapulmonary pressure?
alveolar pressure (AP). pressure within the lungs
46
what is intrapleural pressure?
pressure within the pleural cavity
47
which other pressures are higher than intrapleural pressure?
1. intrapulmonary
2. atmospheric
48
what is transpulmonary pressure?
pressure difference between the intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure
49
what is compliance?
the recoil of elastic fibers/stretch
50
where does compliance occuer?
lungs and accessory muscles
51
what does it mean to have high compliance?
lungs and chest wall expand easily
52
what does it mean to have low compliance?
stiffness, harder to take a breath
53
what diseases could affect compliance?
1. cycstic fibrosis
2. asthma
3. emphysema
54
what is airway resistance?
the resistance of air through the respiratory tract during breathing
55
how is sirway resistance defined?
by how much effort is required to move air in and out of lungs
56
what factors affect airway resistance?
1. length
2. radius
3. cross sectional area
4. density/viscosity
5. velocity of gas
57
what is the relationship for the pressure gradient and airway resistance?
directly proportional to pressure gradient between external atmosphere and alveoil and inversly proportional to resistance
F(proportional) xP/R
58
which way does the chest recoil?
outward
59
which way do the lungs recoil?
inward
60
what forces are acting on the lungs when open?
1. transmural gradient
2. pulmonary surefcant
3. alveolar interdepenedence
61
what forces are acting on the lungs when closed?
1. alveolar surface tension
2. elasticity of stretch in pumonary connective tissue
62
what is the process of gas exchange in external respiration?
1. lungs
2. O2 from alveoli to pulmonary capillary
3. CO2 to alveoli from pulmonary capillary
63
what is the process of gas exchange in internal respiration?
1, cells
2. O2 delivered from capillaries to tissues and cells
3. CO2 produced by cellular metabolism, moves from cells to blood stream
64
what is Ficks law?
the shorter the distance of diffusion means the faster the rate of diffusion
65
what does suractant do?
1. keeps alveoli open by disrupting the polarity of water within the alveoli due to it being a lipid (fat)
2. maintains surface tension
3. creates more in smaller alveoli
66
what is Daltons law?
each gas has its own partial pressure based on the concentration of the solution
67
What is Henrys Law?
the amount of a gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure above the liquid. Gases will always move down the pressure gradient
68
what 3 methods explain gas exchange by diffusion?
1. Daltons and Henrys law: pressure gradient of certain gases
2. thickness of surface area (Ficks Law)
3. ventilation-perfusion coupling
69
what is ventilation perfusion coupling?
breathing in and moving blood through the capillaries to enable gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries
70
what happens when ventilation is less than perfusion?
1. pulmonary artererioles constict
2. bronchioles dialate
3. perfusion decreases
4. ventilation increases
Less O2 in the body
71
what happens when ventilation is more than perfusion?
1. pulmonary arterioles dialate
2. bronchioles contrcit
3. perfusion increases
4. ventilation decreases
more CO2 in the body
72
how does gas travel around the body?
in haemoglobin, by binding to the globin
73
how does O2 travel around the body?
1. `1.5% dissolves into plasma and diffuses into cells
2. the rest binds to haemoglobin=oxyhaemoglobin
74
what is the ideal oxyhaemoglobin %?
92-100%
75
how does CO2 travel around the body?
1. 70% bound to bicarbonate ions
2. 20% binds to the amino group carbaminohemoglobin
3. dissolves into plasma
76
what is the main role of CO2?
to regulate pH of blood
77
what is the chemical reaction for CO2 in the blood?
CO2+H2O <----> H2CO3<---> H+ + HCO3-
78
what is the haldane effect?
when the binding or release of one oxygen molecule changes the shape of the haemoglobin molecule.
79
how does the haldane effect affect CO2 in the tissues
1. O2 is released from haemoglobin
2. this enables a binding od CO2 and protons (forming bicarbonate)
3. removed from tissues
80
how does the haldane effect affect CO2 in the lungs
1. O2 binds to haemoglobin
2. decreases capacity to bind with CO2 and protons
3. CO2 is released and exhaled into the atmosphere
81
what is the Bohr effect?
a lower pH will increase O2 release to encourage CO2 binding
82
how does temperature affect O2?
high temperature releases O2, increases O2 metabolising tissues, where heat is generated
83
what is 2-3 Bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG)?
1. an acid that binds to haemoglobin
2. reduces affinity of O2
3. increasing oxygen release
4/ is a non-competitive inhibitor of RBS and causes a change in shape of O2 receptors
84
how is breathing regulated?
1. phrenic nerve innervates intercostal nerves, which innervate intercostal muscles
2. cyclic neural activity from brain stem and respiratory muscles
85
where are the respiratory neurons?
in the medulla oblongata
86
what are the 3 regions of the neural groups?
1. Nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS)
2. Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)
3. Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)
87
what is the pre-Botzinger complex?
is the pacemaker of the respiratory system. It spontaneously fires AP
88
where is the Dorsal Respiratory Group DRG?
within the Nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS)
89
what does the DRG control?
inspiration
90
what does the VRG control?
active breathing
91
what does the Pons Respiratory Centre do?
1. fine tunes breathing whilst; talking, sleeping, excercise.
2. integrates input from peripheral sensory receptors and higher brain centres
3. communicates and modifies the DRG and VRG neurons
92
What are the chemical factors for affluent signaling in the respiratory system?
1. Arterial CO2
2. H+
3. O2
93
Which chemoreceptors trigger a respiratory response?
Central and peripheral chemoreceptors
94
What is the inflation reflex?
When stretch receptors signal respiratory centre's via vagus nerve to end inspiration and lung recoil
95
What are pulmonary irritants?
1. Mucus
2. Dust
3. Fumes
4. Etc
96
What happens when the bronchial receptors are activated due to irritants?
1. Communicate with respiratory centre's via the vagus nerve
2. Initates a reflex contristiction
3. Cough/sneeze occurs
97
Which brain centre's control respiratory responses?
Hypothalamus and motor cortex
98
What does the carotoidbody chemoreceptor do?
1. Increases blood flow
2. Detects low O2 (hypoxemia: 60>30mmHg)
3. Increases ventilation when pressure is <20mmHg
99
Where are the carotoid body chemoreceptors found?
Pass to the glossopharyngeal nerves and to the DRG
100
Where is the aortic chemoreceptors found?
Through the vagus nerve and to DRG
101
What does the aorticbody chemoreceptor do?
1. Reduce blood flow
2. Detects low O2 (hypoxemia)
3. Detects high CO2 (hypercapnia)
4. Detects high H+ (acidosis)
102
Where are the central chemoreceptors?
In the medulla oblongatta
103
What does the central chemoreceptors detect in the CSF
1. High levels of CO2 (hypercapnia)
2. High levels of H+ (acidosis)
104
Where are the stretch receptors?
In the walls of the airway in the lungs
105
What do the stretch receptors detect?
1Lung inflation
106
Which nerve innervates the stretch receptors?
Vagus nerve
107
What is the reflex arch of the stretch receptors?
1. Lungs over inflate
2. Stretch receptors send inhibitory signals to medulla
3. Temporary halt in inspiration occurs
108
What is the name of the stretch reflex arch? (Hint:name)
Hearing-Breuer Reflex (1869)
109
What 2 factors increase ventilation during exercise?
1. Increase in tidal volume
2. Increase in respiratory rate
110
What happens to respiration during excercise?
1. Contraction of respiratory muscles
2. Contraction of accessory muscles
3. Contraction of diaphragm
111
What is stimulation during excercise?
1. Cortical motor center
2. Respiratory center
112
What receptors activate during excercise in the muscles, tendons and jounts?
Proprioceptors
Biom1071
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