1
Q
Central Nervous System (CNS)
A
Brain and spinal cord
2
Q
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
A
Connects brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
3
Q
Somatic nervous System
A
- Park of the Peripheral Nervous System
- Consists of the axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles
4
Q
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
A
- Part of the Peripheral Nervous Sytem
- Controls the heart, intestines, and other organs
- Made up of the Sympathetic Nervous System and the Parasympathetic Nervous System
5
Q
Dorsal
A
- Means towards the back
- Backside of Spine
- Top side of brain (Would be backside when on a 4 legged creature)
6
Q
Vental
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- Means towards the stomach
- Frontside of the spine
- Bottom half of the brain (Would be towards stomach on a 4 legged creature)
7
Q
Anterior
A
Towards the front
8
Q
Posterior
A
Towards the back
9
Q
Superior
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Towards the top
10
Q
Inferior
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Towards the bottom
11
Q
Lateral
A
Away from the midline
12
Q
Medial
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Towards the midline
13
Q
Lamina
A
A row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites
14
Q
Coloum
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A set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties
15
Q
Tract
A
A set of axons within the CNS, also known as a projection. If axons extend from cell bodies in structure A to synapses onto B, we say that the fibers “project” from A onto B
16
Q
Nerve
A
A set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS
17
Q
Ipsilateral
A
If two structures are both on the left side of the body
18
Q
Contralateral
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If one structure is on the left and another is on the right
19
Q
Gyri
A
The bulges in the cerebral cortex
20
Q
Sulcus
A
The grooves between the the bulges in the cerebral cortex
21
Q
Spinal Cord
A
- The spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and muscles except those of the head.
- Each segment has on both the left and right sides a sensory nerve and a motor nerve
- entering dorsal roots (axon bundles) carry sensory information, and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information
22
Q
Dorsal Root Ganglia
A
The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord
23
Q
Grey Matter
A
in the centre of the spinal cord is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites.
Many neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord send axons to the brain or to other parts of the spinal cord through the white matter
24
Q
White Matter
A
- Myelinated axons in the spinal cord
- Neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord send axons to the brain or to other parts of the spinal cord through the white matter
25
Sympathetic Nervous System
- A network of nerves that prepare the organs for a burst of vigorous activity
- Consists of chains of ganglia just to the left and right of the spinal cord’s central regions
- prepare the organs for “fight or flight,” such as by increasing breathing and heart rate and decreasing digestive activity
26
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Rest and Digest
- known as the craniosacral system because it consists of the cranial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord
- long preganglionic axons extend from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia close to each internal organ
- Shorter postganglionic fibers then extend from the parasympathetic ganglia into the organs themselves
27
Brain's divisions
hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
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Hindbrain
- Posterior part of the brain
- consists of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum
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Brainstem
The medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central structures of the forebrain
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Medulla oblongata
- Enlarged extension of the spinal cord
- Head and organs connect to the medulla through 12 Cranial nerves
- large doses of opiates are life-threatening because they suppress activity of the medulla
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Cranial Nerves
- originating in the medulla control vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing
32
Pons
- Anterior and Ventral to the Medulla
- it contains nuclei for several cranial nerves
- in the pons, axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord so that the left hemisphere controls the muscles of the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side
33
Cerebellum
- A large hindbrain structure with many deep folds
- balance and coordination, shifting their attention back and forth between auditory and visual stimuli, timing, certain types of learning and conditioning
34
Midbrain
- The midbrain is more prominent in reptiles, amphibians, and fish
- roof of the midbrain is called the tectum
- swellings on each side of the tectum are the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus.
- important for sensory processing—the inferior colliculus for hearing and the superior colliculus for vision
- Under the tectum lies the tegmentum, the intermediate level of the midbrain
- the substantia nigra, gives rise to a dopamine-containing pathway that facilitates readiness for movement
35
Tectum
- roof of the midbrain is called the tectum
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superior colliculus
- Swelling on the side of the tectum
- Sensory processing of vision
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inferior colliculus
- Swelling on the side of the tectum
- Sensory processing of hearing
38
tegmentum
- the intermediate level of the midbrain
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substantia nigra
- Midbrain structure
- gives rise to a dopamine-containing pathway that facilitates readiness for movement
40
Forebrain
- most prominent part of the mammalian brain, consists of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left and one on the right
- organized to receive sensory information, mostly from the contralateral (opposite) side of the body
- controls muscles, mostly on the contralateral side, by way of axons to the spinal cord and the cranial nerve nuclei
- Cerebral cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system,
41
Cerebral Cortex
- The most prominent part of the mammalian brain. Humans and primates have a much larger cerebral cortex than other mammals
- The cells on the outside are gray matter and the axons extended inwards are white matter
- Neurons in each hemisphere communicate to the other through the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure
42
Limbic System
- Several interlinked structures, known as the limbic system, form a border around the brainstem. These structures are particularly important for motivations and emotions, such as eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression.
- Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex
43
Hypothalamus
- Part of the limbic system
- hypothalamus, a small area near the base of the brain just ventral to the thalamus
- hypothalamus is essential for control of eating, drinking, temperature control, and reproductive behaviors
- Partly through nerves and partly by releasing hormones, the hypothalamus conveys messages to the pituitary gland, altering its release of hormones
- Damage to any hypothalamic nucleus leads to abnormalities in motivated behaviors, such as feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behavior, fighting, or activity level
44
Amygdala
- Part of the limbic system
- The amygdala is part of the circuit that is most central for evaluating emotional information, especially with regard to fear
45
Thalamus
- Part of the limbic system
- It resembles two small avocados joined side by side, one in the left hemisphere and one in the right
- Most sensory information goes first to the thalamus, which processes it and sends output to the cerebral cortex (except olfactory input)
46
Pituitary Gland
- endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus
- response to messages from the hypothalamus, the pituitary synthesizes hormones that the blood carries to organs throughout the body
47
Basal Ganglia
- group of subcortical structures lateral to the thalamus, include three major structures: the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus
- damage to the basal ganglia impairs movement, as in conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease
- integrate motivational and emotional behavior, critical for learned skills and habits, types of learning that develop gradually with extended experience
48
nucleus basalis
- nucleus basalis is a key part of the brain’s system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention
- Patients with Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease have impairments of attention and intellect because of inactivity or deterioration of their nucleus basalis.
49
Hippocampus
- large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex
- hippocampus is critical for certain types of memories, especially memories for individual events. It is also essential for monitoring where you are and where you are going
50
Ventricals
four fluid-filled cavities within the brain
Cells called the choroid plexus along the walls of the four ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear fluid similar to blood plasma
51
Meninges
membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord
meningitis—inflammation of the meninges
Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are responsible for the pain of a migraine headache
52
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
cushions the brain against mechanical shock when the head moves
provides a reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord
53
Corpus Collosum
Neurons on each hemisphere of the brain communicate to other side through the Corpus Collosum
54
Occipital Lobe
- the posterior end of the cortex
- the main target for visual information
- A person with cortical blindness has normal eyes and pupillary reflexes, but no conscious visual perception and no visual imagery (not even in dreams)
55
Parietal Lobe
- lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus, a deep groove in the surface of the cortex
- parietal lobe monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that control movement
56
Postcentral gyrus
- In the parietal lobe
- receives sensations from touch receptors, muscle-stretch receptors, and joint receptors
- 4 bands of cells and each simultaneous information from different body parts
57
Temporal Lobe
- lateral portion of each hemisphere, near the temples
- auditory information and spoken language
- complex aspects of vision, including perception of movement and recognition of faces
58
The Frontal Lobe
- primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex, extends from the central sulcus to the anterior limit of the brain
59
Precental gyrus
- Part of the frontal lobe
- the control of fine movements, such as moving a finger
60
Prefrontal Cortex
- Part of the Frontal Lobe
- Neurons in the prefrontal cortex have huge numbers of synapses and integrate an enormous amount of information
- 3 main zones: posterior portion is associated mostly with movement, middle zone pertains to working memory, cognitive control, and emotional reactions, and anterior zone of the prefrontal cortex is important for making decisions, evaluating which of several courses of action is likely to achieve the best outcome
61
Primary Motor Cortex
- Part of the Frontal Lobe
- No area in the motor cortex controls just a single muscle
62
Prefrontal Lobotomies
- surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain
- the goal was for patients with severe untreatable psych disorder to be tamer without noticeably impairing their sensations or coordination
- 40,000 prefrontal lobotomies were performed in the United States, mostly by Walter Freeman (a doctor untrained in surgery)
- caused apathy, a loss of the ability to plan and take initiative, memory disorders, distractibility, and a loss of emotional expressions
63
Binding problem
- The question of how the brain produces a perception of a single object
- It occurs if you perceive two sensations as happening at the same time and in approximately the same place
- Eg. the arm mirror trick
64
Broca Area
- Paul Broca found that a patient who had lost the ability to speak had damage in part of his left frontal cortex
65
Ways to study the brain
- Brain damage
- Stimulating areas of the brain
- Record brain activity during behaviour
- Correlating brain anatomy with behaviour
66
Ablation
Removal of a part of the brain. Used in laboratory animals to study the brain
67
Stereotaxis Instrument
- Used to make lesions in lab animal's brain by precise placement of electrodes in the brain to damage a particular area
68
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
- Application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of the scalp, can stimulate neurons in the area below the magnet
- With stronger stimulation it inactivates the neurons, producing a “virtual lesion” that outlasts the magnetic stimulation itself
69
Optogenetics
- Using light to control a limited population of neurons
- One protein reacts to light by opening a sodium channel, exciting the neuron, and another reacts by opening a chloride channel, producing inhibition
- very thin optical fibers that can shine just the right amount of light onto neurons in a narrowly targeted brain area
- Researchers can control the excitation or inhibition of one type of neuron in a small brain area with millisecond accuracy
70
electroencephalograph (EEG)
- Records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp
- EEG is useful for distinguishing between wakefulness and various stages of sleep
- can also record brain activity in response to a stimulus
71
magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
- measures the faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity
- An MEG has excellent temporal resolution, showing changes from one millisecond to the next
- can identify the times at which various brain areas respond and thereby trace a wave of brain activity from its point of origin to the other areas that process it
72
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
- High-resolution image of activity in a living brain by recording the emission of radioactivity from injected chemicals
- The areas with the most radioactivity are presumably the ones with the most active neurons.
73
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- An fMRI is a modified version of MRI based on hemoglobin instead of water
- . When a brain area becomes more active, two relevant changes occur: First, blood vessels dilate to allow more blood flow to the area. Second, as the brain area uses oxygen, the percentage of hemoglobin with oxygen decreases
- The fMRI method produces spectacular pictures, but difficulties arise when we interpret the results
74
Phrenology
- 1800s way of researching brain
- Franz Gall assumed that bulges and depressions on their skull corresponded to the brain areas below them
- Invalid
75
Computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT scan)
A physician injects a dye into the blood to increase contrast in the image, and then places the person’s head into a CT scanner. X-rays are passed through the head and recorded by detectors on the opposite side
Psych 302
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