What is the distinction between
system 1 and system 2 thinking?
Fast, Intuitive, & Instinctive vs Slow &
Rational
How can the process of problem
solving be explained by this “space”
analogy?
Search through a space
toward a goal - Initial state,Goal state, Operators, Constraints
What is the distinction between
algorithms and heuristics?
A procedure that, if followed correctly, guarantees that one reaches the goal state vs. A “rule of thumb” for fast solving problems with no guarantee
How can well-defined be
differentiated from ill-defined
problems?
Whether or not the key elements of a problem space (= initial state, goal state, operators, & constraints) can be specified
What are the common “stumbling
blocks” to problem solving?
- Failure to select/use appropriate
heuristics - Inappropriate mental set and functional fixedness
- Incorrect or incomplete representations of the problem
- Lack of relevant domain-specific
knowledge
hill climbing & working backward heuristics
trying to always move closer to
the goal state
- Multiple operators = choose the
one that moves you in the direction of the goal state
inappropriate mental set
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past
functional fixedness
An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function
Tower of Hanoi problem solving
well defined problem - hill climbing
the water lilies problem in problem solving
working backwards - Analyzing the goal state to determine the last step needed to achieve it, then the next-to-last step
How are deductive reasoning and
inductive reasoning different from each other?
Drawing a logically certain and specific conclusion from a set of general premises (general to specific)
vs.
Reaching a probable general conclusion, based on a set of specific facts (specific to general) (specific hypothesis)
What are the two valid and two invalid inferences for conditional reasoning, according to formal logic?
Logically valid inferences
◦ Modus ponens
◦ Modus tollens
Logically invalid inferences
◦ Denial of the antecedent
◦ Affirmation of the consequent
In what ways does human conditional reasoning deviate from formal logic?
Applying formal logic rules ensures valid conclusions
- humans do not always follow formal logic
- difficult to apply modus tollens
- invalid inferences
- Example: card selection task
what roles do concrete contexts play in human conditional reasoning?
Detecting “cheaters” (those who violate social contacts) has evolutionary significance
modus ponens
If P then Q
P
Therefore Q
modus tollens
If P then Q
~Q
Therefore ~P
affirmation of the consequent
If P then Q
~P
Therefore ~Q
denial of the antecedent
If P then Q
Q
Therefore P
Wason’s card selection task
If a card has a vowel on oneside, then it has an even number on the other side - you need to flip 2 cards: the vowel(E) and the odd card(7)
What are “normative” models?
Models that define ideal performance under ideal circumstances in making decisions
What are utility theories of decision
making, and how do they work?
have served as normative models in decision making research. They are the (subjective) value associated with
a particular circumstance to weigh the pros and cons
In what ways are utility theories of decision making limited in characterizing human decision making?
Under many situations, utility theories do NOT FULLY describe human decision making:
- Framing effect
- loss aversion
What is loss (risk) aversion? How
does it influence our everyday
judgments?
Predictions from utility theories are sometimes violated because people
show a clear tendency for avoiding loss
What is the framing effect? How does it influence our everyday judgments?
The way in which alternatives are
stated (or “framed”) can affect people’s preferences:
- discount vs surcharge
- opt-in vs opt-out
