1
Q
What are the two major control systems of the body?
A
nervous and endocrine system
2
Q
What is the primary function of the endocrine system?
A
To regulate body functions through hormones
3
Q
What do hormones act upon?
A
Target cells with receptors for the hormone
4
Q
How do hormones work?
A
The organ releases a hormone into the interstitial fluid, which is then picked up by the bloodstream and binds to cells with receptors that match the hormone. A hormone produces an effect on the target cell via signal transduction pathway.
5
Q
What is the fate of a hormone picked up by the blood stream? (4)
A
bind to target cell, activated or inactivated by metabolism, concentration lowered by liver, kidneys, or target cell, or catalyzes the formation of another hormone.
6
Q
What are the possible responses when a hormone binds to a receptor? (4)
A
produce a new hormone or enzyme, cause secretion, stop/start the cell from doing a specific function.
7
Q
What inputs control hormone secretion? (2)
A
amount of hormone released, negative feedback
8
Q
What are the three types of feedback that control hormone secretion?
A
humoral, hormonal, and neural control
9
Q
Humoral control is a type of hormone release triggered by
A
changes in blood levels of ions or nutrients (non-hormones)
10
Q
Hormonal control is a type of hormone release triggered by
A
another hormone
11
Q
Neural control is a type of hormone release triggered by
A
nerve impulses
12
Q
What will the chemistry of a hormone determine? (3)
A
location of receptor at target cell, whether a transport protein is required, lifespan
13
Q
What type of hormone decomposes more quickly and requires more frequent synthesis?
A
Water-soluble
14
Q
What is the location of target receptors for lipid-soluble hormones?
A
instracellular
15
Q
What is the location of target receptors for water-soluble hormones?
A
cell membrane
16
Q
Name the two parts of the pituitary gland.
A
anterior and posterior pituitary
17
Q
What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
A
It controls the function of the anterior pituitary by secreting hormones into portal vessels.
18
Q
Chemical classes of hormones (4)
A
amine, peptide, water soluble, lipid soluble
19
Q
Characteristics of amine hormones (3)
A
ends in -ine, small, stored until secreted
20
Q
Characteristics of peptide/protein hormones (4)
A
ends in -in, large, water soluble, made in rough ER
21
Q
Peptides are primarily released by which organs? (5)
A
hypothalamus, anterior/posterior pituitary, pancreas, parathyroid
22
Q
Characteristics of steroid hormones
A
lipid soluble, derived from cholesterol, not stored
23
Q
Steroids are released by which organs? (4)
A
adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta, and kidneys.
24
Q
Types of steroids (2)
A
corticosteroids, gonadal steroids
25
Name three types of steroid hormones
testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
26
What type of hormones are typically water-soluble?
Peptide hormones and most amine hormones.
27
What is the fate of lipid-soluble hormones after they are produced?
They immediately diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors.
28
What is the chemical class of hormones released from the hypothalamus?
All hypothalamic hormones are peptides, except for dopamine.
29
The hypothalamus controls the function of the __ by secreting 7 (hypophysiotropic) hormones into __.
anterior pituitary, portal vessels
30
ADH and oxytocin are both are made in the __ but released from __
hypothalamus, posterior pituitary
31
Name of portal vessels connecting the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary?
hypothalamus pituitary axis (HPA)
32
Define the root for -tropic and -tropin
target
33
What hormones are synthesized by the hypothalamus? (7)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone-releasing hormone, prolactin-releasing hormone, prolactin-inhibiting hormone, somatostatin, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone
34
What's the alternate name for growth hormone inhibiting hormone?
somatostatin (ss)
35
What's the alternate name for prolactin inhibiting hormone?
dopamine
36
The anterior pituitary is derived embryonically from the
epithelium of mouth
37
What are the 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), growth hormone (GH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin (PRL), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
38
Function of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
causes development of the gametes in the gonads
39
Function of luteinizing hormone (LH)
causes estrogen/progesterone or testosterone release in the gonads
40
Alternate name for growth hormone (GH)
somatotropin
41
Alternate name for thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
thyrotropin
42
Alternate name for adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
adrenocorticotropin
43
Chemical class of all 6 hormones from the anterior pituitary
peptides
44
hypophysiotropic
acting on the hypophysis (pituitary)
45
Pituitary dwarfism
hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood
46
Pituitary gigantism
hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood
47
Acromegaly
hypersecretion of growth hormone during adulthood
48
The posterior pituitary is derived embryonically as
an outgrowth of hypothalamus
49
What is defined as a neural extension of the hypothalamus?
posterior pituitary
50
What happens to chemicals released in the posterior pituitary?
they are made in the cell bodies of neurons in the hypothalamus, then moved down axon to posterior pituitary for release by exocytosis.
51
What is another name for the chemicals released by the posterior pituitary?
neurohormones
52
What are the two hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary?
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin
53
Alternate name for antidieretic hormone (ADH)
vasopressin
54
Function of antidieretic hormone (ADH)
targets kidneys to conserve water, causes vasoconstriction, male/male bonding
55
Feedback mechanism for ADH secretion
neural feedback
56
Diabetes insipidus
hyposecretion of ADH
57
Function of oxytocin
breast milk release, orgasm contraction, bonding
58
Feedback mechanism for oxytocin secretion
neural feedback
59
All hormones released by the posterior pituitary are
peptides
60
What three hormones are secreted by the thyroid gland?
T3, T4, calcitonin
61
Alternate name for T3
triiodothyronine
62
Alternate name for T4
tetraiodothyronine, thyroxine
63
Function of T3/T4 (3)
increase metabolic rate, brain development/function, support ghrh
64
Chemical class of hormones T3 and T4
lipid-soluble amines
65
What is required for synthesis of T3/T4?
iodine
66
Cretinism
hyposecretion of T3/T4 during fetal development
67
Hashimoto's disease
Autoimmune disorder causing hypothyroidism during adulthood
68
Grave's disease
Autoimmune disorder causing hyperthyroidism
69
Symptoms of Grave's disease
goiter, exophthalmos, heat/cold intolerance
70
Feedback mechanism for TRH/TSH/T3&T4
hormonal feedback
71
Describe the thyroid negative feedback loop
The hypothalamus releases TRH, stimulating the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH, which prompts the thyroid to produce T3 and T4 that then inhibit TRH and TSH through negative feedback.
72
Calcitonin function
lowers blood calcium
73
calcitonin organ
bone tissue
74
chemical class of calcitonin hormone
peptide
75
Feedback mechanism for calcitonin
Humoral feedback
76
Describe calcitonin's feedback loop
high blood calcium levels are detected by the thyroid, which then secretes calcitonin. Calcitonin's primary target is osteoclasts in bone. Osteoclasts pull calcium into the bone, the new level of calcium in blood is detected and sends a signal that all is well.
77
What hormone is released by the parathyroid gland?
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
78
Function of PTH
Targets bone and kidney tissue to increase circulating blood calcium
79
Chemical class of PTH hormone
peptide
80
Feedback mechanism for PTH?
Humoral feedback
81
Describe PTH's feedback loop
PTH is released in response to low blood calcium detected at the parathyroid gland. The parathyroid releases PTH, sent to osteoclasts and kidneys and increases activity to dump more calcium into the blood stream. humeral feedback says it has enough in the negative feedback loop. Can also tell kidney to hold on to some so it doesn't loose to much.
82
Which hormones are released by the pancreas?
glucagon, insulin, somatostatin
83
What type of organ is the pancreas?
endocrine and exocrine
84
What is the function of the exocrine portion of the pancreas?
releases digestive enzymes into intestine
85
What is the function of the endocrine portion of the pancreas?
contain's pancreatic islets; regulates blood glucose levels
86
Feedback mechanism for glucagon and insulin?
Humoral feedback
87
What does the pancreas detect?
blood glucose levels
88
Describe feedback loop when blood glucose levels are low?
pancreatic alpha cells detect the decrease and secrete glucagon. Glucagon primarily targets the liver, stimulating glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (the production of new glucose). These processes increase blood glucose levels. Once glucose levels rise, the pancreas detects the change and stops secreting glucagon.
89
Describe feedback loop when blood glucose levels are high?
pancreatic beta cells detect the increase and release insulin. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by most body cells and stimulates the liver to perform glycogenesis (the conversion of glucose to glycogen). As blood glucose levels decrease, the pancreas senses this change and reduces insulin secretion.
90
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
autoimmune disorder causing hyposecretion of insulin due to pancreas's inability to produce.
91
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
hypersecretion of insulin caused by chronically elevated blood sugar eventually results in hyporesponsiveness (insulin resistance).
92
Function of somatostatin
controls regulation of secretion of other pancreatic hormones; inhibits insulin and glucagon release
93
Chemical class of all pancreatic hormones
peptides
94
The gonads include which primary organs?
testes, ovaries
95
Hormones produced by the Gonads (Testes)
androgens, inhibin, mullerian inhibiting hormone
96
Function of the testes
male development, secondary sex characteristics, sex drive
97
Are androgens anabolic or catabolic steroids?
anabolic
98
inhibin function
inhibits spermatogenesis or oogenesis
99
spermatogenesis
production of sperm
100
Mullerian-inhibiting hormone (MIH)
causes disintegration of female
101
What are the four main gonadal androgens?
DHEA, androstenedione, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone
102
Describe the gonad (testes) chain of hormone secretion to get to androgens?
The hypothalamus releases GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH; LH then acts on the testes to produce androgens, which provide feedback to the hypothalamus to regulate further GnRH release.
103
Describe the gonad (testes) chain of hormone secretion to get to spermatogenesis?
The hypothalamus releases GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH; FSH, in the presence of androgens, promotes spermatogenesis in the testes, leading to the production of inhibin that feeds back to the hypothalamus to regulate GnRH release.
104
Inhibin hormone
inhibits the secretion of FSH during spermatogenesis.
105
What is the feedback mechanism for the Gonads?
hormonal
106
Hormones produced by the Gonads (Ovaries)
estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin
107
Function of estrogens? (3)
female development, secondary sex characteristics, reproductive cycle.
108
Function of progesterone?
"pro" gestation (pregnancy), the ovaries use progesterone to tell the uterus to thicken the lining of the uterus in preparation for a pregnancy or until no implantation occurs.
109
Describe the chain of hormone secretion that begins in the hypothalamus and ends with oogenesis and production of estrogen.
The hypothalamus releases GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH that act on the ovaries. The ovaries respond to LH by producing androgens, which are converted to estrogens that provide feedback to the hypothalamus to regulate GnRH release. In response to FSH and the presence of estrogens, the ovaries initiate oogenesis and release inhibin, which helps regulate FSH secretion.
110
Relaxin hormone
A hormone produced during childbirth to relax muscles and tendons in preparation for childbirth.
111
The adrenal gland functions as which two separate glands?
adrenal cortex, adrenal medulla
112
Adrenal gland corticosteroid functions
salt, sugar, sex
113
What three hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex?
corticosteroids (mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids, gonadocorticoids)
114
Mineralcorticoid hormone function & type
controls mineral salt levels; aldosterone
115
Aldosterone
Hormone that stimulates the kidney to retain sodium and secrete potassium
116
Aldosterone feedback mechanism
humoral
117
Glucocorticoid hormone function
a catabolic hormone involved in controlling circulating glucose levels during times of sleep, illness, stress; anti-inflammatory, necessary for sustaining life
118
Glucocorticoids do what to blood glucose?
raise
119
Glucocorticoid types (2)
cortisol, corticosterone
120
Glucocorticoids are required for the synthesis of which hormone?
Growth hormone
121
Feedback mechanism for cortisol secretion?
Combination of hormonal/neural
122
Gonadocorticoid hormone function
Similar hormones to those that come from the testes are also produced in the adrenal gland in both males and females
123
Gonadocorticoid produces which hormones?
androgens (DHEA, androstenedoine)
124
Androgen (DHEA androstenedoine) function in women
converted to estrogen by other organs, sex drive in women
125
Chemical class of all adrenal cortex hormones
steroids
126
Addison's disease
hyposecretion of cortisol and aldosterone; hypoglycemia and poor stress tolerance
127
Cushing's disease
hypersecretion of glucocorticoids resulting in hyperglycemia, diabetes, and muscle wasting; unusual body fat distribution
128
Precocial puberty in prepubertal children and masculinization or virilism (in adult females) can happen as a result of what?
hypersecretion of gonadal or adrenal cortex hormones
129
Adrenal medulla location
inner portion of adrenal gland
130
What hormones are synthesized by the adrenal medulla (3)
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
131
Which organs are targets of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine?
cardiac, smooth, glands
132
Adrenal medulla function
enhance and prolong the 'fight or flight' response by dumping epinephrine into the bloodstream
133
Chemical class of all adrenal medulla hormones?
water-soluble amines
134
Feedback mechanism for epinephrine?
Neural feedback (because the nervous system stops it and starts it, even though it is transported through the bloodstream)
135
How are endocrine disorders categorized?
hyper/hypo secretion or responsiveness; primary, secondary, or tertiary (determined by order of organs with the hypothalamus being tertiary)
136
Circulating hormone amounts can regulate __ over long time periods
receptor number and responsiveness
137
Causes of hyposecretion
genetics, dietary deficiency, autoimmune disease
138
Causes of hypersecretion
usually a tumor, autoimmune
139
Causes of hyporesponsiveness
poor functioning or down-regulated receptors, genetic
140
Define stress
anything that disturbs homeostasis (good or bad)
141
Three phases of stress response (general adaptation system)
alarm, resistance, recovery or exhaustion
142
Alarm phase
acute stress response; epinephrine and norepinephrine are dumped into the bloodstream as hormones, causing metabolic effects
143
Resistance Phase
immediate emergency is overcome; now coping with long-term lower-level stressors; cortisol and aldosterone help with temporary need but cause metabolic damage long-term in particular to growth, reproduction, GI tract and increase metabolic disease
Physiology
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