1
Q
What is motivation?
A
The set of forces that initiates, directs and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal
2
Q
Motivation =
A
Motivation = Initiation + Direction + Persistence
3
Q
What is job performance?
A
How well someone performs the requirements of the job
4
Q
Job performance =
A
Job performance = Motivation x Ability x Situational constraints
5
Q
What is ability as it pertains to job performance?
A
The degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills and talent needed to do a job well
6
Q
What are situational constraints?
A
The factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies and resources that have an effect on job performance
7
Q
What are needs?
A
The physical or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and wellbeing
8
Q
What are the main principles of all needs theories?
A
- People are motivated by unmet needs.
- Once a need is met, it no longer motivates
9
Q
What are the needs theories?
A
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Alderfer’s ERG theory
- McClelland’s Learned needs theory
10
Q
What is the core principle of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
A
People are motivated by their lowest unsatisfied needs first
11
Q
What are the needs in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs from lowest to highest?
A
- Physiological
- Safety
- Belongingness
- Esteem
- Self-actualisation
12
Q
What are the core principles of Alderfer’s ERG theory?
A
- People can be motivated by more than one needs at a time
- People are just as likely to move down the needs hierarchy as up, particularly when they are unable to achieve satisfaction at the next higher need level
13
Q
What are the needs in Alderfer’s ERG theory from lowest to highest?
A
- Existence
- Relatedness
- Growth
14
Q
What are the core principles of McClelland’s Learned needs theory?
A
- The degree to which particular needs motivate varies from person to person
- Needs are learned, not innate
15
Q
What are the needs in McClelland’s Learned needs theory from lowest to highest?
A
- Affiliation
- Achievement
- Power
16
Q
What is empirically true of all needs theories?
A
- Higher order needs will not motivate people as long as lower order needs remain unsatisfied
- Once lower order needs are satisfied, it’s difficult to predict which higher order needs will motivate behaviour
17
Q
What are the lower order needs?
A
- Safety
- Physiological
- Existence
18
Q
What are the higher order needs?
A
- Relationships
- Accomplishments
- Influence
19
Q
What is true of both extrinsic & intrinsic rewards?
A
Both are important
20
Q
What kinds of rewards are there?
A
- Extrinsic Reward
* Intrinsic Reward
21
Q
What are extrinsic rewards?
A
A reward that is tangible, visible to others and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviours which external agents determine and control the distribution, frequency and amount of
22
Q
What are extrinsic rewards used for and what are examples of them?
A
- Used to motivate people to perform four basic behaviours: join the organisation, regularly attend their jobs, perform their jobs well and stay with organisation
- Pay
- Company stock
- Benefits
- Promotions
- Performance bonuses
23
Q
What are intrinsic rewards?
A
The natural rewards associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake
24
Q
What are examples of intrinsic rewards?
A
- Jobs found interesting or enjoyable
- Sense of accomplishment or achievement
- Feeling of responsibility
- Chance to learn something new or interact with others
- The fun that comes from performing work
25
What are the steps to motivate people with the basic model?
- Ask what people’s needs are
* Satisfy lower order needs first
* Expect people’s needs to change
- As needs change and lower order needs are satisfied, create opportunities for employees to satisfy higher order needs
26
In motivating, how can lower order needs be satisfied?
- Provide the equipment, training and knowledge to create a safe workplace free of physical risks
- Pay employees well enough to provide financial security and offer an attractive benefits package
27
What are the components of Equity Theory?
* Inputs
* Outcomes
* Referents
* Outcome/Income ratio
28
What are inputs in Equity Theory?
The contribution an employee makes to an organisation
29
What are outcomes in Equity Theory?
The reward an employee receives from their contributions to an organisation
30
What are referents in Equity Theory?
- Someone with whom a person compares themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly
- A single person
- Generalised other
- Oneself over time
31
What is the core mechanism of Equity Theory?
* Outcome/Income ratio
32
What is the Outcome/Income ratio and how is it used?
- An employees perception of how the rewards received from an organisation compare with the employee’s contributions to that organisation
- (Self-Outcomes / self-inputs) / (referent-outcomes / referent-inputs)
- When people perceive that their O/I ratio is different from their referents O/I ratio, they conclude that they have been treated inequitably or unfairly
33
In Equity theory, what are the types of inequality?
* Under-reward
| * Over-reward
34
What is under-reward and what does it result in?
- Occurs when ones O/I ratio is worse than the referent’s
| - Leads to anger & frustration
35
What is over-reward and what does it lead to?
- Occurs when ones O/I ratio is better than the referent’s
- Leads to guilt
- People tend to have a very high tolerance for over-reward
36
In Equity Theory, what are the possible reactions to perceived inequality?
- Perceived inequality affects satisfaction
- Frustration & anger, or guilt
- These reactions lead to tension and a strong need to take action to restore equity in some way
- Reducing inputs
* Increasing outcomes (asking for a raise/unions)
* Rationalising inputs or outcomes
- Changing the referent
* Leaving
37
What are the steps to motivating with equity theory?
* Look for and correct major inequities
* Reduce employees’ inputs
* Make sure decision-making processes are fair
38
What can complicate the correction of inequities by managers?
Different perceptions make it difficult for managers to create conditions that satisfy all employees
39
How can reducing employee's inputs help motivate with equity theory?
- Identify and eliminate a percentage of employees jobs that doesn’t increase productivity or add value for customers
- Eliminate company-imposed requirements that aren’t critical to performance
40
What are the two justices concerning equity theory?
* Distributive justice
| * Procedural justice
41
What is distributive justice?
The perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated
42
What is procedural justice?
- The perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions
- Even when employees are unhappy with their outcomes, they’re much less likely to be unhappy with the company if they believe that the procedures used to allocate outcomes were fair
43
What must be true for employees to seek constructive ways to restore equity?
They must perceive that there is procedural justice even in spite of a lack of distributive justice
44
What is expectancy theory?
States that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded and that they will be offered attractive rewards
45
In expectancy theory, Motivation =
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality
46
What are the core forces and what is the core tenant of expectancy theory?
Expectancy theory holds that people make conscious choices about their motivation. The three factors that affect those choices are valence, expectancy and instrumentality
47
What is Valence?
In expectancy theory, the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome
48
What is expectancy?
In expectancy theory, the perceived relationship between effort and performance. When expectancies are weak, employees figure that no matter what they do or how hard they work, they won’t be able to perform their jobs successfully
49
What is instrumentality?
In expectancy theory, the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. When instrumentality is weak, employees don’t believe that better performance will result in more or better rewards, so they chose not to work as hard
50
What is the causality in expectancy theory?
- Valence and instrumentality combine to affect employee’s willingness to put forth effort
- Expectancy transforms intended effort
51
How can motivation be achieved with expectancy theory?
* Systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs
- Link rewards to individual performance in a way that is clear and understandable to employees
* Empower employees to make decisions if management really wants them to believe that their hard work and effort will lead to good performance
52
What are the theories of motivation?
* Equity Theory
* Expectancy theory
* Reinforcement theory
* Goal setting theory
53
Reinforcement theory states..
that behaviour is a function of its consequences, that behaviours followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently and that behaviours followed by negative consequences or not followed by positive consequences will occur less frequently
54
What is reinforcement in reinforcement theory?
The process of changing behaviour by changing the consequences that follow behaviour
55
What are reinforcement contingencies?
- The cause and effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviour and specific consequences
- Getting docked an hour’s pay for being late to work
56
What are the reinforcement contingencies?
* Positive reinforcement
* Negative reinforcement
* Punishment
* Extinction
57
What is positive reinforcement?
Reinforcements that strengthens behaviour by following behaviours with desirable consequences
58
What is negative reinforcement?
- Reinforcements that strengthens behaviour by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behaviour
- aka Avoidance learning because workers perform a behaviour to avoid a negative consequcens
59
What is punishment reinforcement?
Reinforcement that weakens behaviour by behaviours with undesirable consequences
Though punishment can weaken behaviour, managers have to be careful to avoid the backlash that sometimes occurs when employees are punished at work
60
What is extinction reinforcement?
- Reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behaviour, thus weakening the behaviour
- When companies perform poor, leaders are no longer rewarded
61
What are the main aspects of reinforcement theory?
* Reinforcement contingencies
| * Schedules of reinforcement
62
What are schedules of reinforcement?
The set of rules that specify which behaviours will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviours and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered
63
What are the types of schedules of reinforcement?
* Continuous Reinforcement schedules
| * Intermittent Reinforcement schedules
64
What are continuous reinforcement schedules?
A schedule that requires a consequences to be administered following every instance of a behaviour (Piece rate system of compensation)
65
When are continuous reinforcement schedules most used?
Most used when employees are learning new behaviours because reinforcement after each success leads to faster leaning
66
What are intermittent reinforcement schedules?
A schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specific or average number of behaviours has occurred
67
What are the types of intermittent reinforcement schedules?
* Fixed Interval Reinforcement schedules
* Variable Interval Reinforcement schedules
* Fixed Ratio Reinforcement schedules
* Variable Ratio Reinforcement schedules
68
What is a fixed interval reinforcement schedule and an example?
- An intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behaviour only after a fixed time has elapsed
- Most people receive their pay on a fixed interval schedule. As long as they work during a specified period they will get a pay
69
What is a variable interval reinforcement schedule and an example?
- An intermittent schedule in which the time between a behaviour and the following consequence varies around a specified average
- On a 90-day variable interval reinforcement system, you might receive a bonus after 80 days or 100 days
70
What is a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule and an example?
- An intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviours
- A salesperson might receive a bonus after every x sales
71
What is a variable ratio reinforcement schedule and an example?
- An intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviours that very around a specified average number
- On a 10 sales variable ratio reinforcement schedule, you might receive a bonus after 7,8,12 or 13 days
72
What is the empiricism of the schedules of reinforcement?
- Interval based systems tend to produce weak results
- The effectiveness of all other systems differs very little
- managers should use whichever fits their organisation - CONTINGENCY
73
What is the primary method for creating reinforcement contingencies in organisations?
Extrinsic rewards and the schedules of reinforcement used to deliver them
74
What do reinforcement contingencies affect?
valences, instrumentality and effort
75
How can motivation be achieved with the reinforcement theory?
Luthans 5 steps for critical performance based behaviours
76
What are Luthans 5 steps for motivating with reinforcement theory?
- Identifying critical, observable performance based behaviours
- Measure the baseline frequencies of these behaviours
- Analyse the cause and consequences of these behaviours
- Intervene by using positive and negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of theses critical behaviours
- Evaluate the extent to which the intervention actually changed worker’s behaviour
77
What are the further (beyond Luthans 5) steps for motivating with reinforcement theory?
- Don’t reinforce the wrong behaviours
* Correctly administer punishment at the appropriate time
- Chose the simplest and most effective schedule of reinforcement
78
Goal setting theory states...
...that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress towards goal achievement
79
What are the components of goal setting theory?
* Goal specificity
* Goal difficulty
* Goal acceptence
* Performance feedback
80
What is goal specificity?
In the goal setting theory of motivation, the extent to which goals are detailed, exact and unambiguous
81
What is goal difficulty?
In the goal setting theory of motivation, the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish
82
What is goal acceptance?
In the goal setting theory of motivation, the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals
83
What is performance feedback in goal setting theory?
Information about the quality or quantity of past performance and indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal
84
What is the reasoning behind goal setting theory?
- Challening goals focus employees attention on the critical aspects of their jobs and away from unimportant areas
- Goals energise behaviour
- Goals create tensions between the goal and the current state of affairs. This tension can only be relieved once the goal is satisfied
- Goals influence persistence
85
What are the steps to motivating with goal setting theory?
- Assign specific, challenging goals
* Make sure workers accept organisational goals
- Provide frequent, specific, performance related feedback
86
In goal setting theory, how can manager make sure workers accept organisational goals?
- Participative goal setting
- Provide training
- People must see the goals as fair and reasonable
87
When are intermittent reinforcement schedules most used?
To maintain behaviour after it is learned because intermittent rewards are supposed to make behaviour much less subject to extinction
88
How does feedback lead to stronger motivation and effort in goal setting theory?
- Can encourage employees who don't have specific challenging goals to set goals to improve their performance
- Once goals are met, feedback often encourages them to set higher more difficult goals
- Lets people know whether they need to increase their efforts or change strategies
89
Equity theory States..
That people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly
MGMT1003
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
Managers23
-
History of Management35
-
Organisational Environment14
-
Ethics & Social Responsibility49
-
Planning60
-
Organisational Strategy74
-
Innovation & Change39
-
Global Management46
-
Designing Adaptive Organisations73
-
Human Resource Management102
-
Motivation89
-
Leadership71
-
Control67
-
Consultancy7
