1
Q
What are the 3 periods of Motor development?
A
- Precursor (1870 – 1928)
- Maturational period (1928- 1946)
- Normative/ descriptive period (1946 – 1970)
- Process Orientated (1970 – present)
2
Q
What was the focus of the precursor developmental period?
A
Observed single children:
Focus on sequence of behavioural change (product) to form common sequence of development
3
Q
What was the focus of the maturational period?
A
Observed multiple children to attempt to explain rate & order of development
4
Q
What was the focus of the normative/ descriptive period?
A
Focus shifts to process & motor & cognitive development were separated (specifically strength + growth development)
5
Q
What was the focus of the Process orientated period?
A
+ Dynamical systems approach started to shift thoughts around development; encouraging a bottom-up approach
6
Q
Define motor development?
A
The study of the changes to the perceptual motor systems, the underlying processes & products of functional motor behaviour across the life span.
7
Q
What is Growth?
A
Observable changes in quantity
8
Q
What is maturation?
A
development of organs, physical structures & motor capabilities
9
Q
What are self-organising properties?
A
The ability of perceptual motor systems to self-select patterns
10
Q
What determines readiness?
A
Maturation & experience
11
Q
What are 7 assumptions about motor development?
A
- Development is Continuous
- development is cephalocaudal and proximodistal
- Domains of development are interrelated
- environment is influential
- critical & sensitive periods exist
- Human development is flexible
- abilities progress, regress 7 develop atypically
12
Q
What are the stages of development?
A
- Prenatal
- Infancy: 0-2y (survival orientated)
- Early childhood: 2-6y (FMS, perceptual motor awareness, self-care)
- Later childhood: 6-12y (refine FMS into sport-specific)
- Adolescence: 12-18y (develop independence & identity)
- Adulthood: 19+
(changing societal roles-> reduced PA & fitness)
13
Q
What are the 7 phases of the developmental continuum?
A
- Reflex/ spontaneous (3m pregnant -> 1yr)
- Rudimentary: maturation
- Fundamental movement: motor awareness, body awareness, locomotive & manipulative skills emerging
- Sport skill: FMS are adapted & moulded to be used into a dynamic environment
- Growth & refinement:
- Peak performance
- Regression
14
Q
What components of movement change with age?
A
- Flexibility (2 periods; males have a regression period)
- Balance
- Power
- Coordination (non-linear)
- Endurance (F=11; M=13-14)
- speed (F=6; M=7)
- strength (females 1st)
15
Q
How do males & females develop balance differently?
A
males improve faster but females start out better
16
Q
What causes coordination decline with age?
A
cortical atrophy, reduced cortical excitability & plasticity, neurochemical abnormalities
17
Q
Exampled of FMS?
A
- throwing
- Kicking
- Running
- Jumping
- Catching
- Striking
- Hopping
- skipping
18
Q
What dictates ways bones develop?
A
Unequal forces
19
Q
What ages do males & females experience peak height velocity respectively?
A
12.5y males; 13.5 females
20
Q
What is the difference between osteopenia & osteporosis?
A
Osteopenia: components of brain fail to develop (relation to CA+ & P)
Osteoporosis: decreased formation of new bone
21
Q
What bone & muscular changes are observed prenatally?
A
5w: bone formation & myotubes
20w: first muscle fibres
Muscle fibre differentiation (28-41% type 1)
Neural innervation of motor end plates
22
Q
When does adult-like distribution of fibres occur?
A
Infancy
23
Q
At what age does muscle fibre relaxation speed mature?
A
10 years
24
Q
What increase in muscle mass do we see between 5 & 17 years in males & females respectively?
A
Males; 53% increase in muscle
Females: 41% change
25
When do we see the greatest strength gains?
1 year post PHV
26
What % of muscle do we observe per decade?
5%
27
What is sarcopenia
Loss of muscle mass, strength & functional abilities
28
What motor unit remodelling occurs with age?
Reductions in ATP production, slower excitation, contraction coupling, reduced cross-bridge cycling strength
29
why does muscle decline with age?
+ less protein
+ hormonal & metabolic changes
+ reduction in capacity/ motivation to be active
30
What is neuroplasticity?
ability of neurons in the cortico-cerebellar system to change
31
What is experience-expectant plastcity?
Lack of exposure retards development
32
What is experience-dependant plasticity?
Ecological plasity
33
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death
34
Why does neuron cell death occur?
Overproduction of neurons
35
Does the CNS Or PNS regenerate?
PNS (CNS doesn't)
36
What Prenatal changes to de observe to CNS & PNS?
3 weeks: initial formation of CNS
4 weeks: motor nerve fibres aware
6-7 weeks: synapse begin to form & myelination begins
8 weeks: reflexive response to tough; head ½ size body, pairing between sensory & motor parts of the body
16-20 weeks: myelination of motor then sensory axons respectively
37
2 year olds have ( twice/half) as many neural connections than adults
Twice
38
What are the 2 main critical periods?
6-10 -> ongoing myelination
| 10-12y
39
How much does brain volume decline across the lifespan?
15%
40
What age does myelination peak?
50Years
41
Do we observe reductions in the volume of the basal ganglia?
No
42
What age do we see decrease in motor nerve conduction velocity?
From 15-24 years
43
What ages do we see generalised and specific localisation of the sensory system?
Touch: 7-9m general localisation 12-16m specific localisation
44
t what age is reaching guided by proprioception?
8 months
45
At what age does children have kinaesthetic memory = adult levels?
8 years
46
What age is depth perception mature?
12 years
47
When are people most susceptible to muscle & knee injuries?
Post PHV
48
Why are children slower at processing information?
1. Slower nerve conduction speed
2. Slower perception & slower decision making
3. Lack of task specific strategies & knowledge
4. Lack of attention/ motivation
49
At what ages do we see over-exclusive, over-inclusive & selective attention respectively?
1. 5-6y
2. 6-11y
3. 11+
50
What does development & maturation result in?
1. Coordination -> organisation of coordinative structures
2. Control -> refining Behaviour
3. skill ->developing effectiveness & efficiency & economy
51
_____ Experience informs infants avoidance of falling from drop offs
Crawling
52
what are the 4 learning curves of the sway model?
Sitting
Crawling
Cruising
walking
53
Perception of visual cliff is better/worse/same in novice walkers & experienced walked as experienced crawlers
The same
54
Is a slope or drop-off more dangerous for babies?
slope --> babies are more likely to go below submersion point
55
When do infants need to recalibrate perception-action system?
when a new locomotr skill is aquired
56
What are the 5 periods of the mountain motor development?
1. Reflexive
2. Preadapted
3. Fundamental motor patterns
4. Context-specific
5. Skillful
57
What is the reflexive period which occurs form prenatal to 6m?
Reflex stimulate CNS/PNS & engage exploration of perceptual-motor landscape
58
What are the 3 types of reflexes?
1. Primitive
2. Postural
3. locomotor
59
What are some primitive reflexes?
+ suckling
+ rooting:
+ grasping: palmer stimulation (can support 70% body weight)
60
How do we assess primitive reflexes?
Moro: when startles arms/ legs extend outward, hands open, fingers spread
Startle: opposite to Moro
Babinski: stroking sole of foot fan out & extend toes
61
What are postural reflexes?
React to forces & alter posture
1. Head or body righting: gently turn the infant’s head + body; other will follow
2. Labyrinthine righting reflex: enables upright posture
3. Pull-up reflex: baby in sitting position holding caregiver’s hands (will flex/ extend arms to remain upright if tipped forward or back)
4. Parachute reflex: protective + supportive (forward & downward)
62
What are locomotor refleces:
1. Crawling: preparatory reflexes (pressure applied to sole of foot = leg extension)
2. Stepping
63
What are stereotypies and how many are there ~?
Transitional, rhythmical behaviours that create sensory experiences that help neural development
~67
64
What are stereotypies constrained by>
body & postural dynamics
65
What are the averages rudimentary behaviour occurs?
1. Holds head voluntary 1m
2. Rolls stomach to back 8m
3. Sitting alone 6 months;
4. put self in sitting 8m
5. sit appropriately 9m
6. Standing: 6-8 (holding),
7. standing alone: 11-13m
66
How is sitting independantly achieved?
By reducing trunk displacement & velocity
| Due to the development of muscle synergies due to lumbar, paraspinal, quads & hamstrings
67
How long do children need to walk before we observe reduced sway
1.5 months
68
What is open & closed loop control?
Open loop: fast, pre-planned, ballistic actions (>5 cm/s)
| Closed loop: Slow, guided by sensory info (< = 3 cm/s)
69
What is embodied cognition?
cognitive processes are deeply grounded in bodily interactions with the environment
70
When does children begin walking 7 when does it mature?
13months; 5 years
71
What is creeping?
Homolateral movement
72
How do children walk with frozen DOF?
Unstable, block movements with a wide stance
73
What are the 3 stages of manual coordination?
Prehension: seizing & grasping
Manipulation: skillful use of hands
Manual control: catch all terms, includes reaching, grasping & releasing
74
At what age are infants guided by visual info?
7 Months
75
What 3 theories explain reaching
1. Dynamic Systems: perception-action interactions = behaviour selction
2. Neuronal Group Selection = stronger neuronal connections enacted
3. Approximate optimal control = selection basedon internal state & predicted reward
76
When does manual/ fine motor control emerge?
after palmar reflex, stereotypies & grasping
77
Finger differentiation doesnt mature to .... years
8
78
Why is development delayed in larger babies?
more to lift; not strong enough
79
What are 3 Fundamental movement skills?
+ locomotion
+ object manipulation
+ balance
80
what are the 3 characteristics of fundamental motor skills?
Unique movement pattern
Near universality of outcome
Generalisation to a broad set of skills
81
What are anticipatory postural adjustments?
ability to prepare for upcoming perturbations?
82
At what age does gait initiation stop being a block style?
4-5 years
83
What are the 3 primary constraints of throwing
1. Base of support
2. trunk actions
3. fore arm actions
84
What are the 4 levels of motor behaviour?
1. tone (postural stability)
2. Synergies (control interactions into functional units)
3. space (spatial orientation)
4. action
85
What are Context specific, skilful & compensation periods
application of FMS to a variety of tasks & environmental contexts
+ rate limiter is the development of perceptual-cognitive capabilities
86
What is a compensation period?
system adapts/ compensates for detrimental changes in organismic constraints
87
Define Physical literacy?
the motivation, physical competence, confidence, knowledge & understanding to maintain physical literacy across the life course
88
Wh?at is the foundation of Physical literacy
1. Monism (moves away from a dualistic approach)
2. Encompasses doing, responding, interpreting & Understanding
3. Holistic framework
4. Signals an interplay with our surroundings (culture + society = influential)
5. non-exclusive connotations
89
What are the properties of physical literacy?
1. Physical capabilities (capacity for movement; motor skill competence, engagement)
2. Affective (confidence, self-perceived competence & self-esteem)
3. Cognitive (knowledge & understanding of activities)
Progression/ developmental pathway
4. Target audience
5. Holistic concept
6. Related construct (health literacy; asthetic considerations)
90
What is physical/ motor competence?
Proficiency in fundamental motor skills: locomotor & object control skills
91
How are FMS assessed?
+ outcome orientation
| + Process (technique) orientation
92
What are some differences between the development of FMS in males & females?
+ girls under 10 have better balance than boy (sex effect is age dependent)
+ girls develop locomotor skills earlier (parts of brain reach max size earlier)
+ boys develop advanced object control skills earlier than girls
93
Children accurately/ inaccurately percieve effort as motor competence; what is the benefit of this?
Inaccurately
| drives persistence & engagement
94
How do we assess self-percieved competence?
Athletic sub scale
95
In boys Object control & overall motor skills is (positively/negatively) & significantly related to Mod & vigorous PA levels; the opposity is true in females.
Positively
96
At what age does FMS competence become a better predictor of PA in girls than boys?
14 years
97
What is the proficiency barrier?
low self percieved competence = barrier to sport involvement
98
What is the main catalyst of involvement in PA?
actual motor skill is main catalyst as also increases PMC
99
What is the negative spiral of disengagement?
less PA isassociated with difficulty, lack of success & lack of enjoyment
Less competence = less success = less engagement
100
What are the challenges of assessing Physical literacy?
```
+ wide change movement skills
+ no standardised tests for PL
+ tests lack ecological validity
+ assessments often involve skill-instruction guidelines or demonstrations (limits ability to explore perceptual motor development & find best method for them)
+time
```
101
How does exergaming help people develop Physical literacy?
1. technology = engaging; help older adults with technology
2. online/ instant feedback
3. Objective, sensitive assessments
102
What are the drawbacks of exergaming?
1. Not everyone will have access
2. Require extensive testing to enable valid, reliable assessments
3. Ecological validity
4. Type of game influential in types of PA performed
103
What are 2 ways to help people become physically literate?
1. Exposure to a range of PA that act to promote both skill & self-perceived competence
2. Track progress
104
What is an assessment?
Measurement (info collection) + evaluation (determining value of measurements)
105
Where do we assess FMS competence?
1. Hospitals
2. maternity centres
3. daycare
4. schools
5. Sport clubs
6. Unis
106
Why do we assess FMS competence?
1. Diagnosis
2. Determine developmental status
3. Placement into interventions
4. Evaluation of content for planning (teaching/ coaching)
5. Construct norm & criterion performance standards
6. Research
7. Predict
8. Motivate
107
What are some important considerations when assessing FMS?
+ Validity
+ reliability
+ instructions easy?
+ instructions not subject to interpretation?
+ does effort have significant influence?
108
What score on the APGAR scale show that a child is developing atypically & needs immediate assistance?
scores under 4
109
Are infant motor assessments product or process orienyated?
product -> use norm reference standards
110
What are the subscales of bayleys scales of infant development?
1. cognitive
2. language
3. Motor (72 gross & 66 fine)
4. Social-emotional
5. Adaptive
111
What are the age bands of affordances in motor development
1. 3-18m
| 2. 18-42m
112
What are the 4 types of affordances in the home?
1. Child & family characteristics
2. Play space affordances
3. Daily activities
4. Play material affordances
113
What are the 8 tasks used to identify & assess developmental delays?
1. Place pegs
2. Threading ace
3. Drawing
4. Bounce & catch ball
5. Thrown bean bag
6. Balance on one foot
7. Jump into squares
8. Heel to toe walking
(these are combined with qualitative measures)
114
What is a process orientated assessment?
identify an individuals current movement qualities & compare to an established developmental sequence
115
What are the 6 tests used to evaluate physical function in healthy elderly people & dementia patients?
1. Chair stand test (lower body strength
2. Biceps curl test (upper body strength)
3. 6 min walk test (aerobic endurance)
4. Chair sit & reach test
5. The back scratch test (upper body flexibility)
6. 2.45m up & go test (agility & dynamic balance
116
When do we experience our maximum strength?
25-29 years when cross-sectional are is greatest
117
At what age do we observe maximum oxygen intake?
Late teens/ early twentys (driven by muscle volume)
118
What age do we observe maximum exercise tolerance?
F=25; m=28
119
What age does reaction time peak & why?
mid 20s due to max neurological function
120
What do athlete development models take into consideration?
1. Chronological Age
2. Training Age
3. Athletes capability & maturation
4. Physical, mental-cognitive & emotional development is on going
121
What are the 5S's used for diagnosing?
stamina, strength, speed, skill & suppleness
122
What is speed 1 & speed 2?
Speed 1: quickness + agility (less than 5s) anaerobic
| Speed 2: a-lactic power & capacity up to 20 seconds
123
What are the 5 developmental periods of training?
1. Fundamental:5-8y
2. Learning to train: 9-12
3. Training to train: 13-16
4. Training to complete: 17-19
5. Training to win: 20+
124
What age do the 5S's develop in males?
1. Speed 1(~8)
2. Skills (~10.5)
3. Speed 2 (13)
4. Aerobic (11-15)
5. Strength (13 & 14)
125
What age do the 5S's develop in females?
1. Speed 1(~7)
2. Skills (~9.5)
3. Speed 2 (15.5)
4. Aerobic (14-17)
5. Strength (17)
126
What age does middle childhood end for males & females respectively?
11 for males; 9 for females
127
What are the main characteristics of LTPD developmental model?
1. 5s’s of training & performance
2. need 10, 000 hours
3. Use peak height velocity as a reference point
4. Suggest critical & sensitive period
5. ‘Early’ & ‘Late” specialisation sports
128
What are the characteristics of YPS developmental model?
1. 9 physical qualities
2. Use puberty & peak height velocity
3. Use a constraints based approach
4. no focus on endurance until adulthood
5. All qualities trainable throughout childhood (no sensitive period)
129
What age does endurance peak in LTAD VS YPD respectively?
LTAD: F=12; M=14
| YPD = 18+
130
What age does speed peak in LTAD VS YPD respectively?
LTAD:
F= 6 & 11.5; M = 7 & 13
YPD = less focus post-adolescence
131
What age does power/strength peak in LTAD VS YPD respectively?
LTAD: after growth spurt
YPD: equal at all ages
132
What age does Agility peak in LTAD VS YPD respectively?
LTAD: F=5-11; M= 6-12
YPD: focuses middle
133
What age does skill peak in LTAD VS YPD respectively?
LTAD: F=8-11; 9-12
YPD: FMS: <8F/9M
SSS: adolescence
134
What are the 5 theories of regression?
1. Genetic theory (cellular clock): aging is controlled by the genes -> max age = 125
2. Wear & tear theory: Repair can’t keep up with damage
3. Cellular garbage/ mutation theory: body accumulates waste products (including free radicals. Cross linking idea suggests different molecules join causing deterioration
4. Immune system theory: ability to fight infection is induced
5. Hormonal theories: atrophy of the thymus gland which influences immune function
Decrease in oestrogen & growth hormone are also influential
135
At what rate does physical function decline from 30 years?
0.75-1%
136
What physiological changes occur during regression?
+Decreased cardiorespiratory function (sedentary decreases at 2x rate)
+Decrease in surface area; loss muscle
+ decreased muscular strength (type 2 fibres atrophy; reduction in motor neurons)
+ Decreased flexibility (collagen & synovial membranes degrade; joints stiffer)
+ Decreased neural function (psychomotor slowing due to reduction in processing speed)
+ Decreased vision
+ Decreased balance
+ BP increase
+ BF increases
137
Why is postural control reduced in elderly?
as a result of the loss of peripheral sensory cues & deterioration in function of stretch reflexes initiated from muscle spindles
138
What changes occur to locomotion over the lifespan?
Decreased speed, cadence, step length & stride length
139
Does gait variability remain stable over time?
Yes
140
What is a large variability of gait associated with?
Falling
141
What activities do young people perform better in than the elderly?
Cognitive processing speed
Sustained attention/ executive functioning
Grooved Peg Board task
142
Longer texting is associated with ____% more excursions
60
143
____ is also associated with more excursions
age
144
What is cerebral palsy?
paralysis relating to the cerebrum that affects ability to move & posture control
145
What are the mechanisms behind cerebral palsy?
premature bith, lack of blood & oxygen before/ during birth; brain injury + serious brain infection
146
What are the 3 types of cerebral Palsy?
```
Spastic diplegia (lower limbs)
spastic quadriplegia (all limbs)
spastic hemiplegia (One side body limbs)
```
147
What are the gait problems associated with cerebral palsy
decreased walking speed, distance & balance problems
Decreased ROM, joint power & reflex task modulation
Increased co-contraction & energy cost
Changes in timing of activation
148
What are the 4 gait types in patients with cerebral palsy?
1. Weak or paralysed dorsiflexors
2. Type 1 + triceps surau contracture
3. Type 1 + 2 + hamstrings/ rectus femoris spasticity
4. Type 3 + spastic hip flexors & adductors
149
Can PA help with cerebral Palsy?
Young children: Treadmill training improved gross motor function, walking speed & endurance
Adolescents: Improved perception & negotiation ability
Adult: Whole body vibration decreased spasticity & increased gross motor function
150
What skills does developmental coordination affect?
1. Handwriting
2. Generating & monitoring action models
3. Inability to mentally represent & efficiently plan actions
4. Gross motor skills performed at lower less (as well as FMS)
5. Driving a car can be impacted
151
how does Development coordination disorder affect children physiologically?
1. Increase bw, BMU, waist girth & bf%
2. Decreased VO2
3. Less muscular strength & endurance
4. Less anaerobic capacity; less explosive power
5. Less PA
152
What are 4 interventions for DCD?
1. Task-orientated (strongest)
2. Traditional physical therapy
3. Process-orientated (not recommended)
4. Chemical supplement (insufficient evidence)
153
What does size & fluency of handwriting in DCD reflect?
problems with anticipation & automation
154
What is down syndrome?
have 47 chromosomes instead of 46
(trisomy 21; mosaic)
causes a reduction in muscle tone; joint laxity & problems with gross & fine motor skills
155
What delays in static posture to children with down syndrome experience?
1. 1 year delay in walking
2. Poor posture (exp. When vision & planter cutaneous sensory system perturbed)
3. Differential allocation of resources when sensory input altered
4. Were able to make directionally specific postural responses to platform
5. No adaptation to changing task constraints
6. Slow muscle onset
7. Central processes are the cause of postural control delays
156
Can training help with Down syndrome?
1. Treadmill can help DS to walk sooner (signifigant & large effect)
2. No effects of aerobic training
3. Muscle strength & dynamic balance were improved by training
157
What is parkinsons?
1. Neurodegenetive disease that develops as a result of the loss of neurons associated with dopamine in the basal ganglia
158
What are the symptoms of parkinsons?
Akinesia (paucity of movement & delayed initiation)
Bradykinesia (movement slowness)
Hypokinesia (paucity of movements; reduced movement amplitude)
Postural instability (impaired ability to respond to pertubations)
Rigidity (increased resistance to passive joint movements)
Stooped pressure
tremor at rest
159
What strategies can help with parkinsons?
1. Visual; audio cuing; medications
160
What are the risk factors for parkinsons?
alcohol, smoking, coffee, antioxidants, fatty acids, iron, inflammation
161
What are the two theories of why reflexes disappear?
1. Maturationists: Cortical maturation, increased myelination, axon pruning leads to disappearance
2. Dynamical systems theorists’ suggestion interaction between various body systems leads to disappearance
162
What are the issues with movement batteries?
1. May be difficult to determine what to assess
2. What is a valid test
3. Is the test reliable
4. Have to consider sensitivity
Motor control SPEX202
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