nerve Flashcards

Question

classification of neurons according to function

Answer 1

**sensory neurons** (afferent neurons)- starts in peripheral nerves and end toward CNS. - activated by physical inputs or by chemical signals **motor neurons** (efferent neurons)- starts in the CNS and transfer information towards the peripheral parts ( to the effectors- capable of a response) - have many branched dendrites - have extremely long axons **interneurons**- located in the CNS, they get information from the sensory neurons, process it and can decide if to transfer it to the motor neurons.

Answer 2

-the spaces between myelin - help move action potential along - Not all of the axons contain them the gaps are 1-2 um they have an impact on the speed of transmission.

Answer 3

**multipolar neurons** -usually have one axon -several to numerous dendritic structures emerging at various points along the cell body -usually are motor neurons - have different shapes (length of axons, dimensions and intricacy of their dendritic branching patterns) **bipolar neurons** -have oval somas -2 distinct processes : a single dentritic structure that receives signals and an axon that carries information toward the CNS. -mostly sensory neurons -pseudo-unipolar cells: variants of bipolar cells **unipolar neurons** -simplest structure - in vertebrates are primarily sensory neurons (found in the ANS) **pseudounipolar** mostly sensory neurons

Answer 4

- Cells in the CNS - greatly outnumber neurons (2-10 times more ) - surround the cell bodies , axons and dendrites of neurons - In vertebrate nervous system can Le divided to: Micreglia & macroglia

Answer 5

The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), often referred to as the "rest and digest" system, is one of the two branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The PNS promotes a state of relaxation and stimulates bodily functions that conserve energy and promote bodily processes like digestion, waste elimination, and cell renewal

Answer 6

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS), also known as the "fight-or-flight" system, is one of the two branches of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) that regulates various involuntary bodily functions. The SNS mobilizes the body's resources to prepare for physical exertion or stressful situations

Answer 7

chemical that can be released by exocytosis upon the arrival of the action potential within the area.

Answer 8

it is storged in the sER in the synapthic bulbs. they are needed to transmit the action potential. When a neuron receives an electrical signal, voltage-gated calcium channels in the plasma membrane (outer membrane of the neuron) open. This opening allows calcium ions to rapidly flow into the cytoplasm from the high-concentration store in the SER. The sudden rise in cytosolic calcium concentration triggers neurotransmitter release.

Answer 9

**Astrocytes: star-shaped glial cells are the most abundant cell type in the CNS. They are providing nutrients and oxygen to neurons, helping to regulate the chemical environment around neurons, supporting and insulating neurons, playing a role in the blood-brain barrier. **Oligodendrocytes:These glial cells are responsible for producing myelin, a fatty substance that insulates nerve fibers in the CNS. Myelin helps to speed up the transmission of nerve impulses. **Schwann cells: Similar to oligodendrocytes in the CNS, Schwann cells myelinate neurons in the PNS. They wrap around individual nerve fibers, forming a myelin sheath that insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses. **Ependymal cells:These cells line the ventricles of the brain and spinal cord, which are cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Ependymal cells help to produce cerebrospinal fluid and regulate its flow.

Answer 10

Microglia are the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), acting as its first and main line of defense.

Answer 11

Microglia are much smaller than macroglia, hence the "micro" prefix. Microglia are classified as immune cells, while macroglia primarily provide structural and metabolic support to neurons.

Answer 12

Many axons from various neurons come together to form a nerve. These axons are wrapped in several layers of connective tissue, providing structure and protection: **Endoneurium: This is a thin, delicate layer that surrounds each individual axon. **Perineurium: This layer groups bundles of axons, called fascicles, together. **Epineurium: The outermost layer, made of tough connective tissue, binds the entire nerve fascicles together.

Answer 13

it describes the hypothesized one-way flow of nerve impulses in a neuron. According to this law, dendrites and the cell body receive signals, the axon conducts the signal, and the terminal arborizations of the axon transmit the signal to other neurons.

Answer 14

It states that: Neurons don't form connections indiscriminately with just any other neuron they come across. Instead, they connect with specific target neurons in a precise and ordered manner. and that each neuron communicates only with certain postsynaptic targets (the receiving neuron) and not with others. These connections occur at specialized points of contact called synapses.

Answer 15

some nerve fibers (axons) in one unit.

Answer 16

a signal that make the the next cell active.

Answer 17

a signal that make the the next cell NOT active.

Answer 18

An action potential is an electrical event that travels along the axon of a neuron. It's the fundamental unit of communication in the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information between neurons and to target cells.

Answer 19

Neurons maintain a voltage difference across their cell membrane, called the resting potential. The inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to the outside. This difference is due to unequal distribution of ions (charged particles) on either side of the membrane. the charge is negative 70 mili volt.

Answer 20

when the action potential gets triggered. If a stimulus (like an excitatory neurotransmitter binding to receptors) is strong enough, it causes certain ion channels to open. These channels are typically voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels. Sodium ions rush into the cell due to their concentration gradient (higher outside, lower inside). This influx of positive charges depolarizes the membrane, meaning the voltage difference between inside and outside gets smaller (becomes less negative).

Answer 21

This is the recovery phase where the neuron resets itself. As the action potential reaches its peak, voltage-gated sodium channels close, and voltage-gated potassium (K+) channels open. Potassium ions, with a higher concentration inside the cell, flow out rapidly, restoring the resting membrane potential. it begins after 1 ms.

Answer 22

The sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump), also known as the sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphates (Na+/K+-ATPase), is an integral membrane protein found in all animal cells. It is an active transport protein that uses energy from ATP to move sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions (K+) into the cell against their concentration gradients. This process is essential for maintaining a stable resting membrane potential, regulating cell volume, and transporting various molecules across the cell membrane.

Answer 23

The resting membrane potential, the voltage difference across a neuron at rest, is created by the interplay of two main factors: Unequal distribution of ions: Different concentrations of charged particles (ions) exist on either side of the neuronal cell membrane. The key players are: Sodium (Na+) ions are more concentrated outside the cell than inside. Potassium (K+) ions are more concentrated inside the cell than outside. Large anions (protein and other negatively charged molecules) are stuck inside the cell due to their size and contribute to the negative charge on the inner side. the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump) actively transports Na+ ions out of the cell and K+ ions into the cell against their concentration gradients. Selective permeability of the membrane: The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane acts as a selective barrier. It allows some ions to pass through more easily than others. Potassium channels are "leak" channels, meaning they are always somewhat open and allow K+ ions to move down their concentration gradient, flowing out of the cell.

Answer 24

Resting Phase Depolarization Repolarization hyperpolarization Refractory Period

Answer 25

This is a brief period immediately following the action potential where the neuron is less responsive to further stimulation.

Answer 26

Hyperpolarization refers to a change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative. Hyperpolarization occurs when this negative charge on the inner side of the membrane becomes even greater than the beginning.

Answer 27

As the graded potential increases (becomes less negative due to influx of positive ions), it approaches a critical value known as the threshold potential. This threshold is typically around -55 mV in neurons. The threshold potential ensures that an action potential is either generated entirely or not at all. This allows for reliable and efficient signal transmission within the nervous system.

Answer 28

1. Axon Diameter: Larger diameter, faster speed - Axons with a larger diameter have a lower internal resistance to the flow of ions. This allows for faster propagation of the action potential down the axon, similar to how wider pipes allow for faster water flow. 2. Myelin Sheath: Presence of myelin, significant speed increase: Myelin wraps around the axon like a segmented sheath. This insulation disrupts the continuous flow of ions along the membrane, forcing the action potential to jump from one node of Ranvier (the gaps between myelin segments) to the next in a saltatory conduction process. This saltatory conduction significantly increases the speed of action potential propagation compared to unmyelinated axons. 3. axon length - the longer is the axon length the faster the transmission.

Answer 29

small organic molecules - acetylcholine, amino acids, GABA, glutamine acid, biogenic amines (dopamine, serotonin). Neuroactive peptides - hormones and peptides.

Answer 30

acetylcholine acts as a chemical messenger in many parts of the nervous system, influencing muscle movement (muscles contract), cognitive functions, and various bodily processes.

Answer 31

Unlike acetylcholine, which excites certain neurons, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). This means it doesn't directly generate activity, but rather reduces the firing of neurons.

Answer 32

Composition: Grey matter is packed with neuronal cell bodies. It also contains dendrites and synapses. White matter is composed mainly of myelinated axons. Function: Grey matter is the powerhouse for processing information. It's where all the heavy lifting of thought, memory, emotion, and sensory perception happens. White matter is the information highway. It efficiently carries signals between different regions of grey matter, allowing for communication and coordination throughout the brain and spinal cord. Location: Grey matter is generally forms the outer layer of the brain and the butterfly-shaped center of the spinal cord. White matter is found deeper within the brain and encasing the outer regions of the spinal cord.

Answer 33

The meninges are three protective membranes that surround and cushion the brain and spinal cord. The meninges consist of three distinct layers: Dura Mater (Tough Mother): This is the outermost and strongest layer, closest to the skull and spine. It's a fibrous membrane that provides a sturdy barrier and anchors the meninges to the bone. Arachnoid Mater (Spider Mother): The middle layer, it's a delicate, web-like membrane with a space beneath it called the subarachnoid space. This space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear, watery fluid that cushions the brain and spinal cord, absorbs shock, and helps remove waste products. Pia Mater (Gentle Mother): The innermost layer, it's a thin membrane that closely follows the contours of the brain and spinal cord. It contains blood vessels that nourish the nervous system tissues.

Answer 34

cerebrum (85%)

Answer 35

the brain is divided into two halves called cerebral hemispheres, right and left. They are connected by a thick band of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum which allows them to communicate with each other. Left hemisphere: Language processing, logic, analytical thinking, mathematics, and some motor skills. Right hemisphere: Spatial awareness, creativity, facial recognition, music, and emotions.

Answer 36

The convolutions in the brain, also known as gyri ,sulci and fissure are folds in the folded outer layer of the brain called the cerebral cortex. Gyri are the raised, winding folds that make the characteristic wrinkled appearance of the brain. Sulci are the grooves or furrows between the gyri. Fissures are deeper grooves that separate larger lobes of the brain.

Answer 37

Frontal Lobe: Located in the front of the brain, the frontal lobe is associated with higher-order functions such as planning, problem-solving, decision-making, judgment, and language production. Parietal Lobe: Situated behind the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe is involved in processing sensory information from the body, including touch, taste, and temperature. It also plays a role in spatial awareness, navigation, and body image. Temporal Lobe: Found on the side of the brain just above the ears, the temporal lobe is crucial for processing auditory information, including hearing and music perception. It's also involved in memory, emotion, and speech comprehension. Occipital Lobe: Located at the back of the brain, the occipital lobe is the primary area for visual processing. It receives and interprets visual information from the eyes.

Answer 38

Broca's area, also sometimes referred to as the Broca area, is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere (usually the left hemisphere) of the brain. It's particularly important for speech production.

Answer 39

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the area at the forefront of the frontal lobe of the brain. It's responsible for many higher-order executive functions, including: Planning and decision-making, Working memory ,Problem solving, Judgment, Impulse control, Emotional regulation, Social behavior.

Answer 40

The primary motor cortex is a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe that plays a critical role in initiating voluntary movements.

Answer 41

The primary somatosensory cortex is a crucial region in the brain responsible for processing information from throughout the body. It's located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, just posterior (behind) to the central sulcus.

Answer 42

Wernicke's area, also sometimes called Wernicke's speech area, is a region in the brain crucial for language comprehension. It's located in the temporal lobe, typically on the left side of the brain for most people.

Answer 43

The cerebral cortex is the thin outer layer of your brain that is composed of gray matter and responsible for most of the thinking, feeling, and sensory experiences. It's like the brain's control center for activities like language, memory, and movement.

Answer 44

The basal ganglia, also sometimes referred to as the basal nuclei, are a pockets of gray matter located deep within the brain that play a critical role in movement control, emotions and learning.

Answer 45

The diencephalon, also sometimes referred to as the interbrain, is a crucial region located deep within the brain. It acts as a central hub that relays information between different parts of the brain and plays a vital role in various functions. The diencephalon is composed of four main structures, each with specific functions: -Thalamus: Often referred to as the "gateway" to the cortex, the thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to different parts of the brain. It also plays a role in sleep, alertness, and memory. -Hypothalamus: This tiny structure acts as the control center for many autonomic functions like body temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycles, and hormone release. -Epithalamus: Contains structures involved in regulating sleep and some sensory functions, including the pineal gland which produces melatonin (a hormone influencing sleep-wake cycles). -Subthalamus: Plays a role in motor control and movement coordination, working with the basal ganglia (another group of structures deep within the brain).

Answer 46

tiny structure that acts as the control center for many autonomic functions like body temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycles, and hormone release.

Answer 47

The brainstem is located at the base of the brain and connects the cerebrum (the largest part of the brain) to the spinal cord. It acts as a vital control center for many automatic functions essential for survival. The brainstem is further divided into three sections: Midbrain: Located at the uppermost part of the brainstem, it's involved in relaying sensory information, movement coordination, and alertness. Pons (bridge): Acts as a bridge between the two hemispheres of the brain and relays information between the brain and cerebellum. It's also involved in sleep regulation and facial movements. Medulla oblongata: The lowermost part of the brainstem, it controls many vital autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Answer 48

The limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures involved in emotional responses, motivations, behavior, learning, and memory. It's often referred to as the brain's emotional center and plays a crucial role in shaping our experiences and interactions with the world. Amygdala - the "fear center" Hippocampus- It helps us convert short-term memories into long-term memories. Cingulate cortex: Plays a role in processing emotions, memory, and learning.

Answer 49

The ventricles of the brain are a network of interconnected cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that reside deep within the brain. They play a vital role in protecting the brain tissue, cushioning it from impacts, and helping to remove waste products. There are four main ventricles in the brain: -Lateral ventricles: The largest pair of ventricles, located within each cerebral hemisphere. They appear somewhat like butterfly wings in shape. -Third ventricle: A narrow cavity situated in the diencephalon, between the two thalamus structures. -Fourth ventricle: Located at the back of the brainstem, wedge-shaped and extending down to the central canal of the spinal cord.

Answer 50

The choroid plexus are highly vascular structures located within the ventricles of the brain. They are essential for producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Answer 51

The blood-CSF barrier (BCSFB) is a highly selective filtering system that separates the bloodstream from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a security checkpoint, meticulously controlling the passage of substances between the blood and the delicate neural tissue. it's formed by the tight junctions between epithelial cells lining the choroid plexus.

Answer 52

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a fascinating and critical protective system in your brain. It acts as a highly selective gatekeeper, meticulously controlling what substances can pass from your bloodstream into the fluid surrounding your brain and spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid, CSF). the BBB allows essential nutrients like glucose (your brain's primary fuel) and oxygen to pass and prevents harmful substances like heavy metals, pollutants, bacteria, and viruses from entering. it is established by: Tight Junction Formation Astrocyte Involvement basal lamina

Answer 53

It's a long, flexible column made up of individual bones called vertebrae, stacked on top of each other and connected by ligaments and joints. generally categorized into five regions based on their location and structure: -Cervical vertebrae (C1-C7): These are the seven vertebrae in the neck region. They are the smallest and most flexible vertebrae, allowing for a wide range of head movement. The first two cervical vertebrae (C1 and C2) are unique and specialize in head articulation with the skull. -Thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12): The twelve vertebrae in the chest region. They are larger and sturdier than cervical vertebrae and connect to the ribs, forming the rib cage that protects the heart and lungs. -Lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5): These five vertebrae are located in the lower back and are the largest and strongest vertebrae due to the weight they bear. They provide support for the lower body and allow for significant bending and twisting movements. -Sacral vertebrae (S1-S5): It's located at the base of the spine (hips). The sacrum is a triangular-shaped bone formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae in adulthood. -Coccyx (tailbone): The coccyx is a small, triangular bone at the very bottom of the spinal column, formed by the fusion of four coccygeal vertebrae. It has limited mobility and vestigial function in humans.

Answer 54

-Conducts Nerve Impulses: The spinal cord serves as a communication cable, relaying messages between the brain and the body. Sensory information travels from the body through sensory neurons to the spinal cord. The brain sends motor commands down the spinal cord through motor neurons. -Reflex Coordination: It has the remarkable ability to coordinate certain reflexes without involving the brain. These reflexes are involuntary, rapid responses to stimuli that help protect the body from harm or maintain homeostasis (internal balance).

Answer 55

roots refer to the two bundles of nerve fibers that come together to form a single spinal nerve. -Dorsal Root (Posterior Root): Carries sensory information towards the brain. Emerges from the posterior (dorsal) horn of the gray matter in the spinal cord. Made up of sensory axons. The dorsal root has a swelling called the dorsal root ganglion (sensory ganglion). This swelling contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons, where the sensory fibers originate. -Ventral Root (Anterior Root): Carries motor information away from the brain. Emerges from the anterior (ventral) horn of the gray matter in the spinal cord. Consists of motor axons. The ventral root appears thinner and lacks a swelling compared to the dorsal root.

Answer 56

The central canal is a tiny fluid-filled tube running lengthwise in the center of the spinal cord. It's a remnant of the embryonic neural tube and contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that helps cushion the spinal cord.

Answer 57

Dermatomes are areas of skin that correspond to specific spinal nerves. Each spinal nerve has a designated dermatome, and when that nerve is stimulated, you feel sensation in the corresponding area of skin. They are like a map of the body on your skin, created by the nerves that supply sensation to those regions.

Answer 58

a ganglion is a small, rounded structure that acts as a cluster of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system (CNS). These cell bodies are essentially the "engines" of neurons, containing the nucleus and other essential components for neuronal function. Ganglia are found throughout the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which relays information between the CNS (brain and spinal cord) and the rest of the body.

Answer 59

A dorsal root ganglion (DRG), also known as a spinal ganglion, is a cluster of nerve cell bodies located on the dorsal (back) root of each spinal nerve. It's a crucial structure in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that plays a vital role in sensation. it consists pseudo-unipolar neurons.

Answer 60

Central Process (Central Axon): It carries the processed sensory information away from the soma towards the brain. Peripheral Process (Peripheral Axon and Dendrites): Carries the initial, unprocessed sensory information from the environment or internal organs towards the central nervous system (CNS).

Answer 61

A reflex is an involuntary and unplanned and predictable motor respond to a sensory stimulus. It's an automatic response that happens very quickly, without any conscious thought or decision-making involved. Reflexes are essential for protecting your body from harm and maintaining homeostasis (internal balance).

Answer 62

The pathway a reflex takes is called a reflex arc. in the PNS. it's a negative feedback. It involves several key players: -Sensory receptor: This detects the stimulus. -Sensory neuron: Carries a signal from the receptor to the spinal cord. -Spinal cord: Acts as the control center, processing the sensory information. -integration center -Motor neuron: Transmits a signal from the spinal cord to the muscle or the gland. -effector: organ capable of responding to the signal, resulting in the reflex action.

Answer 63

an interneuron is a critical player acting as a middleman between sensory and motor neurons. interneurons communicate and process information within the CNS, specifically within the brain and spinal cord.

Answer 64

The key difference between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes lies in the number of synapses involved in the reflex arc. Monosynaptic Reflex: Involves only one synapse between the sensory neuron and the motor neuron. This allows for a very quick reflex response, as there's minimal delay in signal transmission. Polysynaptic Reflex: More Complex and Slower: Involves multiple synapses (two or more) within the CNS, typically involving interneurons in addition to the sensory and motor neurons. This allows for more complex processing and integration of information before triggering a motor response.

Answer 65

The pituitary gland, also sometimes called the hypophysis, is located at the base of the brain. It's a critical player in the endocrine system, often referred to as the "master gland" because it produces and secretes several hormones that regulate various bodily functions.

Answer 66

autonomic reflexes are involuntary motor responses triggered by the autonomic nervous system (ANS) in response to internal stimuli. Unlike skeletal reflexes, which involve conscious muscle movement, autonomic reflexes regulate the body's unconscious functions like heart rate, digestion, and pupil dilation.

Answer 67

Preganglionic neurons and postganglionic neurons are two distinct types of neurons that work together within the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to regulate various involuntary bodily functions. Preganglionic Neurons: They are carrying signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to the autonomic ganglia. Primarily release acetylcholine (ACh) at the synapse with postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic Neurons: They are transmitting signals from the autonomic ganglia to the target organs (muscles, glands, etc.). The type of neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons varies depending on the branch of the ANS and the target organ. (Sympathetic nervous system (SNS): Primarily uses norepinephrine (noradrenaline) at the target organ. Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS): Primarily uses acetylcholine (ACh) at the target organ, but some exceptions exist.)

Answer 68

Autonomic ganglia, also known as simply ganglia in the context of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), are clusters of nerve cell bodies (somata) located outside the central nervous system (CNS). They act as crucial communication hubs within the ANS pathway, relaying signals between the CNS and various organs responsible for involuntary bodily functions. -Paravertebral ganglia (sympathetic chain ganglia): Situated on either side of the spinal cord, these ganglia form the core of the sympathetic nervous system. -Prevertebral ganglia (collateral ganglia): Found closer to the organs they innervate, these ganglia can be part of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic system depending on their specific location and function. -terminal (intramural) ganglia - belong to parasympathetic system, located very very close to the target organ.

Answer 69

The key differences between parasympathetic and sympathetic ganglia lie in their location, and neurotransmitter usage. Location: Parasympathetic ganglia is generally situated closer to the target organs they innervate. This allows for more localized control over specific functions. Sympathetic ganglia is typically located in a chain along either side of the spinal cord, forming the sympathetic trunk. Short branches connect this chain to spinal nerves. This centralized organization allows for a broader influence on various organs throughout the body. Neurotransmitter: Parasympathetic ganglia: Primarily use acetylcholine (ACh) as the neurotransmitter released by their postganglionic neurons. Sympathetic ganglia: Primarily use norepinephrine (noradrenaline) as the neurotransmitter released by their postganglionic neurons.

Answer 70

parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

Answer 71

-Both PNS and SNS: In the ganglia (clusters of nerve cell bodies), regardless of the branch, the neurotransmitter released by the preganglionic neuron is almost always acetylcholine (ACh). -In the Effector: *Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): The neurotransmitter released at the target organ (effector) in the parasympathetic system is typically acetylcholine (ACh). *Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): The neurotransmitter released at the target organ in the sympathetic system is usually norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

Answer 72

dorsal horn ## Footnote Example sentence: The dorsal horn of the spinal cord is responsible for processing sensory information.

Answer 73

ventral horn ## Footnote Example sentence: The ventral horn of the spinal cord is responsible for sending motor information out to the muscles.

nerve Flashcards

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