Intro
Humans possess intrinsic values that govern reasoning and behaviour on morality – not imposed by legal standards
- Deontological
- Universal
- Absolute
Many different versions but Aquinas is most famous for his approach
-believed reason was the root of morality not scripture
Aristotle’s bronze statue analogy
Believed everything in the world was working towards a purpose via the four causes uses analogy of Bronze statue: (material cause is bronze, formal cause is its shape, efficient is the means it came about e.g. statue maker, and it final cause it its telos e.g. honouring the Gods
Aristotle quote
Eudaimonia is a common higher law set in motion by the PM (human fulfilment and flourishing)
It is what all humans perceive for its own sake” – achieve by living life virtuously
Russel and Dawkins critique of Aristotle
“Brute fact that has come about by chance and not by some divine purpose” does not allow NML approach as rejects premise in the first place
Strength of Aristotle
humans seem to be working towards final purpose
- gives sense to human life and purpose
- all following NML to achieve final cause
Counter to Aristotle
Claims observations are based on empirical evidence yet there is little evidence to support PM
- searching for beauty and purpose - needs to accept life as it is
- Russel fear of life after death
- Becker - trying to conserve our biological entities and make us seem purposeful
Aquinas on Eudaimonia
for Aquinas the universe is purposive
things exist to reach their goal
we have rational will to do so
Ultimate end but cannot be achieved in this life but the next
- achieved when reach the beatific vision - direct presence and knowledge of God
- can only achieve when use rationalism to follow Gods purpose for humanity
- revealed through 4 tiers of Law: Eternal; Divine; Natural ; Human
Support of Aquinas tiers of law
- Enables human to establish common rules in order to form communities and adhere to a universal law which is important within a relativist era at a time of breakdown within traditional social structures and moral uncertainty
- Gives people moral obligations and consequences for there actions and that if they don’t abide by the rules wont be able to reach eudaimonia and prevents anarchy
Karl Nielson
argued against there being belief in basic human nature that is present across all societies and cultures e.g. members of the Inuit culture killed members of family who could not make it through the winter, Scandinavians killed elderly relatives to allow to get Valhalla – shows there is no common NML
Synderesis rule
’ to do good and avoid evil’
- key rule in which all human inherit in human nature flow
Primary precepts/ secondary
From these primary precepts: preservation of life; to reproduce; to learn; ordered society; worship
using rationalism discern rules secondary precepts from primary on how to live a virtuous life and reach eudaimonia
Support of precepts
- appeals to instinctive conviction of what is right/wrong depends on more than personal opinion/ convention
- ways diff Soc come to same conclusions about NML supports idea human nature to recognise NML through both reason and intuition
- childhood absolute right and wrongs - justice ‘its not fair’ as soon as they suspect that they have received unequal treatment
Criticisms of primary precepts
Darwin evolution - living things motivated by desire for survival - natural selection - strongest survive/ weakest die
- humans seek survival and are self interested - child’s demand for justice is due to inherent need for survival survival
Wars
wars incentive peoples need to kill
- shows that there isn’t NML as people don’t all follow a higher law but rather ones that means that they’ve been told by leaders in power
People don’t follow a NML but rather:
People behave in a way in which they want to be treated
- in Bible ‘ Do unto others as you would unto others’
- but there isn’t a NML guiding us
- evolve this way as it is how we look after ourselves as wouldn’t have been able to survive
Slave trade
Shows how people don’t respect others, no NML, people are just selfish with nor regards to others
Counter to slave trade
People saw Black people as animals - misusing there rationalism
- believing propaganda that black people were savages
- generally though people respect one another and establish principles that would benefit both sides in society in order to survive
- Don’t follow NML but rather follows principles that allow both sides to benefit and survive
The four tiers of law
eternal law: ‘gods will for how the universe is to be’. the principles by which god created and controls the universe. understood by right reason and meaning in our lives
divine law: laws revealed by god, like the ten commandments and the sotm. affirmations of what is knowable by reason
natural law: ‘right reason in accordance with human nature’ ‘do good and avoid evil’
human law: societal regulations for order and human flourishing
Aristotle quote
can be found as early as aristotle, and st paul called it ‘the law that is written on men’s hearts’
John Finnis
john finnis developed a modern perspective, believing in forms of human flourishing: life, knowledge, play, work, friendship and spirituality among others
if deprived of these, a man cannot flourish
supporting them is a pursuit of good, a plan for life, following of conscience and respect for basic value in acts
we can also infer natural rights, not to be tortured, not to be lied to, not to be killed as a mean to an end or condemned on false charges
Docterine of Double effect
an act can have multiple effects and this may be known
the intention matters
saving someones life but harming another in the process must be about the saving not the harm
this means a consideration of intention and consequence
a doctor may prescribe painkillers for extreme pain but kill the sufferer in the process
an important part of moral life is looking at both aspects
we do not condemn mistakes or if it was done with god intention
there are four conditions, though:
the act must not be evil in itself
evil and good of the outcome must be equal at least
intention must be good, not an accidental good
there must be a serious reason to allow inadvertent evil
the last in important, because aquinas insists on proportion
a serious circumstance may require harmful acts
a risky surgery may have to be done to avoid a slow and painful death
Anthony Kenny
argues that he ‘believe[s] that a principle of double effect must form part of any rational system of morality…there are cases where it makes a huge difference’
Weaknesses of NML
vagueness: what should actually be done? no concrete advice, just general principles
conflict: what if two principles conflict? how do we resolve this?
too optimistic: its view humans favourably. there is too much evil to accept this.
god: seems to require a belief in god and values leading from this to fully apply it.
Strengths of NML
objective: gives us rules that are factual and constant
supports human value and right: promotes ideas of human value and absolute rights
virtues: focus on human betterment and promotes human excellence
no god: base don empirical observation of human nature
