1
Q
coding frame
A
- a tally chart which gets filled during a structured observation
- within a coding frame there will be behavioural categories
2
Q
advantages of naturalistic observation
A
- Participants are in their normal environment so are more likely to show valid behaviours
- Participants less likely to be aware they are being observed so will be genuine
- Useful for obtaining observations in situations where intervention would be unethical, e.g. investigating behaviours in domestic abuse, you may observe couples outside a night club on a Saturday night.
3
Q
disadvantages of naturalistic observation
A
- Extraneous variables can rarely be controlled so reduces validity
- Difficult to ensure reliability of data collection, however, this can be overcome by recording behaviours via video tape/camera.
- If observers are identified validity is compromised.
4
Q
advantages of controlled observations
A
- Data recording is likely to be reliable becuase there is a specific focus that allows data to be collected in a consistent manner.
- Extraneous variables can be controlled therefore increasing validity.
- Compared to experiments, a much greater range of behaviours can be explored giving a useful insight into human behaviour
5
Q
disadvantages of controlled observation
A
- Participants are in an unfamiliar environment so may not react naturally
- Participants will be aware that they are in an artificial situation so they may not react naturally
- Difficult to completely represent the reality of a complex social setting so lacks ecological validity.
6
Q
advantages of structured observation
A
- Easier to record as there is a specific focus on certain behaviours. This increases the validity, as the researcher is not distracted by other behaviours, or behaviours that may be irrelevant to the research aim.
- Easier to establish inter-rater reliability. Due to the clear, planned focus on behaviour, the research could be easily used and understood in a consistent way, also improving replicability.
7
Q
disadvantage of structured observation
A
- Can reduce validity as there is a clear focus, behaviours that may be important may be missed due to it not being part of the planned behaviours.
- Open to observer bias as the researcher may interpret behaviours in a way that fits into the planned behavioural categories, therefore reducing validity as it may not reflect what actually happened.
8
Q
advantage of unstructured observation
A
- Increases validity as the researcher is taking into account all behaviours that are going on. This ensures that more valid conclusions are made of behaviour, as a wide perspective is gathered, not a small focussed one.
- Applicable to a wide range of contexts. This is a key strength as this method is extremely easy to use when collecting data on many different situations of behaviour.
9
Q
disadvantages of unstructured observation
A
- Harder to record as the researcher has to pay attention to everything around them, this may cause behaviours to be missed and reduce validity.
- Harder to establish reliability as the focus is limited. If someone else repeats the observation, they might focus on different things.
- Open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find.
10
Q
naturalistic observation
A
- observing participants in their natural environment, often used when manipulating the environment would be unethical
11
Q
structured observation
A
- data collection itself is done in a structured manner.
- Researchers have a pre-defined plan for data collection.
- Often involves using checklists, rating scales, or other structured methods.
12
Q
unstructured observation
A
coding frames or behavioural categories are used all behaviors observed are recorded.
13
Q
participant observation
A
when the observer is amongst the participants who are being observed
14
Q
advantages of participant observation
A
- Only way to observe some behaviours i.e. cults/gangs
- Greater accuracy and detail as the participant is involved in the behaviour. This allows the researcher to make more valid conclusions about behaviour as they have a greater insight and perspective
15
Q
weakness of participant observation
A
- Harder to remain objective as the researcher may get lost in the moment and begin to interpret behaviour at a personal level (building of relationships) which may be more opinionated rather than what is actually happening.
- The presence of the researcher can influence behaviour, reducing validity.
16
Q
non-participant observation
A
- The researcher remains separate from the person they are observing:
17
Q
advantages of non-participant observation
A
- Easier to remain objective as the participant is away from disrtactions and can remain focused – increasing validity.
- The researcher has less influence on behaviour therefore chances of researcher effect are reduced. The participant is likely to be less influenced by the researcher.
18
Q
weakness of non-participant observation
A
- If participants are unaware that they are being observed as part of a non-participant observation, it can raise ethical issues such as consent and the right to withdraw.
- Less detail and accuracy as the researcher is at a distance from the participants, therefore, some behaviours maybe interpreted or recorded inaccurately – reducing validity.
19
Q
overt observation
A
Participants know that they are being observed.
20
Q
advantages of overt observation
A
- Reduces ethical issues as the participants are aware that they are being observed.
- If observed for long periods of time, people tend to forget about observers and behave more naturally, particularly when being filmed.
21
Q
disadvantage of overt observation
A
-i ncrease of social desirability as they are aware of being observed, they may change their behaviour in a way that they feel is favourable to others, which decreases validity.
- Increase chance of demand characteristics, as the participant is aware of the researcher, they may change their behaviour in order to fit in with what they think the researcher wants to see.
22
Q
covert observation
A
Participants do not know they are being observed.
23
Q
advantages of covert observation
A
- Increases validity as participants aren’t aware of being observed, they are more likely to act naturally.
- Less demand characteristics as the participant isn’t aware of the researcher, there would be less chance of them changing their behaviour to fit in with the researchers expectations.
24
Q
disadvantages of covert observation
A
- It creates ethical issues as the participant has not consented to being observed. This makes it difficult to follow other ethics such as right to withdraw, debrief etc.
- If the participant becomes aware of the researchers presence, they may change their behaviour, thus decreasing validity.
25
event sampling
A data collection technique that uses a checklist of possible activities, which are tallied as they occur.
26
advantages of event sampling
- Records are easy to obtain and analyse as researchers can clearly see the total number of behaviours foe each event. This can make analysis extremely quick and easy, especially when looking for most or least common behaviours.
- More reliable observations as the events are already planned, therefore it could be easily replicated to measure consistency of observational behaviours.
27
weakness of event sampling
- Can miss important behaviours due to having set events already planned, other behaviours that were not considered are missed – reducing validity.
- If many events occur at once it may lead to behaviours not being recorded – reducing validity.
- It gives no indication of the amount of time spent on each behavioural category, therefore it can sometimes lead to less valid conclusions about behaviour.
28
time sampling
Behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds)
29
strengths of time sampling
- Less likely to miss behaviours as the researcher usually has a short time to focus on recording behaviour, therefore is more likely to be accurate.
- It can give an indication of how much time is spent on each behaviour.
30
weakness of time sampling
- Behaviours that occur outside the time intervals are not accounted for, therefore may reduce validity as important behaviours may be missed.
- Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
- Can miss events not coded for – reducing validity
31
actions a researcher can take to improve the validity of an observation
1. carry the observation out covertly
2. carry the observatin out in a naturalistic setting
3. to avoid observer bias, get an independent researcher to carry out the observation
32
how would carrying the observation out covertly improve the validity of an observation
- it should ensure that what they see is natural behaviour unaffected by an awareness of beung observed
33
how would carrying out the observation in a naturalistic setting imrpove the validity of an observation
- doing this will enable the esearcher to see real life behaviour (as opposed to behaviour affected by being in a controlled setting)
34
how does getting an independent researcher to carry out the observation improve the validity
it helps ensure that results are objective and not affected by the researcher seeing what they want to see
35
how would carrying the observation out covertly be an issue in action
- there are ethical problems:
participants havent consented to being observed, are being deceieved and also cannot withdraw
36
how would carrying out the observation in a naturalistic setting be an issue
it can be hard to keep track of all the behaviors happening, so some might be missed.
37
how does getting an independent researcher to carry out the observation be an issue
- it means that the extra effort of getting someone else involved in the research
- theres no guarantee that what they see wont be affected by their own biases and prejudice anyway
38
actions a researcher can take to improve the reliability of an observation
1. operationalise the coding frame
2. train the observers in how to use the coding frame
3. run a pilot study before doing the observation study
4. if using a number of different observers, check afterwards to see if they have got the same or similar findings
5. carry out the observation out on a large sample of people
39
how would operationalising the coding frame improve the reliability of an observation
- should enable the observer to be consistent with one another in what they record because it is fully clear what does or doesnt count as an example of a particiular behaviour
40
how does training the observer in how to use the coding grame improve reliability of an observation
- training should help ensure that the observers are all consistent with one another in how they are applying the coding frame
41
how does running a pilot study before doing the observation study for real improve the reliability
- this will enable the researcher to be able to check their results for inter-rater reliability
42
how is operationalising the coding frame be an issue
- it is really difficult to operationalise a coding frame: if it is too precise then examples of the behavipur in question may be left out as they may not show all the required characteristics, if it is too imprecise then examples of other behaviours may be counted when they shouldnt be
43
how is training the observer in how they use the coding frame be a problem
- even with extensive training, behaviours may still occur that just havent been anticipated and that it is unclear how to categorise
44
how does running a pilot study before doing the observation study for real be an issue
- not all of the behaviours that could potentially occur will crop up during a pilot study: there are still likely to be some that are unexpected and that the observers are unsure of how to categorise.
45
how is checking afterwards to see if they have got the same or similar findings improve reliability
- a pilot study will help to bring out what the issues are likely to be (especially regarding unanticipated behaviours and where/how to categorise them)
46
how is check afterwards to see if they have got the same or similar findings a problem
- having more than one observer throws up the problem of what to do if the various observers havent agreed with eachother about the number of times particular behaviours have occured
47
how does carrying out the observation out on a large sample of people improve reliability
- it will help to establish if the researcher has been seeing a consistent effect
48
how does carrying out the observation out on a large sample of people be an issue
- carrying out the observation on lots of people may involve a great deal more time and effort.
49
actions that can be taken to imrpove the ethics of an observation
1. A poster is displayed beforehand explaining where and when the observation will be taking place etc
2. a poster is displayed afterwards explaining what had happened and giving a contact number if anyone wants to find out more
3. the observation is carried out overtly
4. the observation is carried out in a public setting
UNIT 1 PSYCHOLOGY
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