1
Q
naturalistic observation
A
- observing ppts in natural environment
- researcher does not interfere
- observed behaviour is systematically classified using categories
- often used when it would be unethical to manipulate variables
2
Q
structured/controlled observation
A
- involves a situation created by the researcher
- usually conducted in lab settings
- observed behaviour is systematically classified using categories
3
Q
strengths of naturalistic observations
A
- ppts are in their normal environment so results on behaviour will be more valid
- useful for obtaining observations in situations where any intervention would be unethical
- in comparison to experiments, a much greater range of behaviours can be explored which can give us a useful insight into human behaviour
4
Q
weaknesses of naturalistic observations
A
- extraneous variable can rarely be controlled so reduces validity (C+E cannot be established)
- if observers are identified validity is compromised
- ethical issues such as invasion of privacy if they are unaware of the study (can be reduced by conducting in a public place)
- lack of reliability as not standardised
5
Q
strengths of structured observations
A
- extraneous variables can be controlled with means increased validity (C+E can be established)
- in comparison to experiments, a much greater range of behaviours can be explored which can give us a useful insight into human behaviour
6
Q
weaknesses of structured observations
A
- difficult to accurately represent the reality of a complex social setting so lacks ecological validity
- if observers are identified then validity may be compromised
- higher risk of demand characteristics as ppts will be aware of the fact they are in an artificial situation
7
Q
covert
A
- the identity of the researcher, the nature of the project and the facts ppts are being observed all remain concealed
- observing natural, unmanipulated behaviour (unaware of being observed)
- three contexts: public and open setting, closed setting where researcher is already a member and closed setting where researcher pretends to be a member
8
Q
overt
A
- when a researcher is open about their intentions and all ppts are aware of what’s happening and why
- ppts are aware they’re being observed
9
Q
strengths of covert
A
- demand characteristics are less likely to occur, so there is increased validity as they will likely behave naturally
- it can be used when people may not be prepared to co-operate with the researcher
10
Q
weaknesses of covert
A
- ethics can be problematic as fully informed consent cannot be granted
- replication may be difficult as it is less likely to be standardised, especially in more sensitive situations
11
Q
strengths of overt
A
ethical issues are adhered to, can gain fully informed consent, there is no deception, ppts are reminded of RTW, etc.
12
Q
weaknesses of overt
A
- social desirability more likely to occur as ppts are aware of the fact they’re being observed, decreases validity
- ‘Hawthorne effect’ may occur, this is when behaviour alters as a result of the observation
13
Q
participant
A
- observations can be made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed
- can be overt or covert
- researcher is immerses themselves into setting in order to observe behaviour more closely
- bias may occur/results may be less objective
14
Q
non-participant
A
the researcher usually watches from afar or may use a one-way mirror to observe ppts
has less of an influence on ppts
15
Q
strengths of participant
A
- more in depth observation of behaviour, higher validity
- high ethics if overt as ppts are aware of the fact they are being observed
- if covert then behaviour will be more natural, increasing validity
16
Q
weaknesses of participant
A
- if overt then behaviour may be altered (demand characteristics/social desirability)
- observer bias is more likely to occur/results will be less objective as they would’ve spent time and possibly have formed relationships with ppts
- harder to replicate as experiences will vary more
17
Q
strengths of non-participant
A
- if ppts are unaware they are being observed (e.g. one way mirror) their behaviour will be more natural which increases validity
- results will be more objective as the researcher hasn’t immersed themselves, this increases validity
18
Q
weaknesses of non-participant
A
- low ethics as ppts are less likely to be aware of the fact that they are being observed and so fully informed consent can not be granted
- researchers are more likely to miss behaviours as they are observing from a distance
19
Q
collecting observational data
(qualitative and quantitative)
A
- tally counts: the observer writes down when and how many times a certain behaviour has occurred
- observer narratives: the observer may take notes during the session which they then later use to discern behaviour patterns
- audio/voice recordings: the researches may make actual audio or video-taped recordings of each observation session
20
Q
behavioural categories
A
used when designing a structured observation in order to record operationalised (clearly defined) behaviours, this may be done in ways such as using a checklist
21
Q
strengths of behavioural categories
A
- operationalised and therefore more easily observable
- categories can be reused in order to test for consistency
- quantitative data (easier to analyse and is objective)
22
Q
weaknesses of behavioural categories
A
- limited details, e.g. a tally chart will only tell you how often a behaviour occurred not when or why it did
- if behaviours aren’t included in the pre-determined checklist then they may be missed
23
Q
event sampling
A
every time a behaviour included in the pre-determined checklist occurs it is recorded (within a specific amount of time)
24
Q
time sampling
A
observe and record behaviours included in the pre-determined checklist at specific time intervals (e.g. every 5 minutes for 10 seconds)
25
strengths of event sampling
less likely to miss behaviours included in checklist as you are observing at all times, this gives a more valid view
26
weaknesses of event sampling
- behaviours not included on the checklist will be missed
- if multiple behaviours occur at the same time they may not notice them all
27
strengths of time sampling
- more representative over time
- can be easily repeated in order to check for consistency (increases reliability)
28
weaknesses of time sampling
- likely to miss behaviour as not recording observations at all times
- behaviours that aren't on the checklist are likely to be missed
29
inter-rater reliability
researchers observing behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way agree on results
30
improving inter-rater reliability
- use clearly defined and operationalised coding systems (counteracts any observer bias inconsistency with the recordings if other observers)
- train observers by doing practice observations
- observe the same event
Learning psychology
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