Baltes suggested several definitions of old age
Sociological/familial Biological Longevity/demographic Cognitive Institutional
Stages of old age
Young-old (60-69)
Third-age adults (70-79)
Fourth-age adults (80-89)
Old-old (90+)
Ageism
Prejudice/discrimination based on age
Most apparent in old age
Can be externally or internally imposed
Healthy ageing vs age denial in 76+ years (Palmore, 2007)
Healthy ageing practices: Regular exercise (77%) Dieting for health reasons (30%) Avoiding tobacco (87%) Age denial practices: Anti-ageing medications (1%) Cosmetic surgery to look younger (2%) Botox (0%) Hair colouring to look younger (10%)
Cross-cultural differences (old age)
Differences in value systems influence views on ageing and old age
Traditional aboriginal Australian culture promotes social status with increasing age (community elder have highest social status)
Ability (physical and cognitive) is also considered in the advancement towards community elder status (promotes healthy ageing)
Biological ageing
GRADUAL decline in functioning of physiological systems Hair Skin Veins and arteries Muscles Hormones Bones Teeth Sense organs
Psychological impacts of biological ageing
Biological ageing impacts on psychological well-being:
Perceived competency/self-perceived usefulness
Self-esteem
Agency/self-control
Mood/stress
Neurocognitive ageing
Gradual decline in brain volume
Increased ventricle size (fluid filled areas/cavities)
Accelerated loss of brain cells
Decreased neural conduction speed (decreasing reaction time)
Neuroplasticity remains
Explaining biological ageing: disease theories
Autoimmune theory: body’s own immune system triggers ageing by treating the body’s own cells as disease agents
Genetic-disease theory: particular genes responsible for ageing
Explaining biological ageing: homeostasis
Gradual decline in homeostatic control leads to ageing and eventual death
Illness throughout life may reduce the capacity of this system, leading to premature death
Explaining biological ageing: cellular theories
Hayflick limit: pre-determined maximum limit on the life-span of a cell
Free-radicals explanation: ageing is cause by cumulative damage cause by free radicals (molecules with single unpaired electrons which attack other molecules to steal electrons)
Explaining biological ageing: environmental insult theories
Wear and tear: regular bodily insults from external environment result in ageing
Radiation theory: gradual exposure to radiation throughout life results in ageing. This is accelerated in highly radioactive environments
Cognitive ageing: memory
Old age is often associated with memory declines.
However, forgetfulness is reported in a minority of people over 55
Lab based assessment shows gradual decline in memory performance with age:
May be due to decreased motivation
Use of memorisation strategies may explain declines in performance
Overly cautious approaches are adopted by older adults in memorisation tasks
Decreased self-efficacy/confidence
Memory: life review
Tendency to talk about, think about the past as a way of making sense of life
Requires conflict resolution through an evaluation of the past
Successful evaluation results in an integration of the life review into the sense of self
Unsuccessful evaluation is no integration of the life review into the sense of self and results in anxiety or depression
Effects of life review are overwhelmingly positive (encouraged as a therapeutic tool)
Successful cognitive ageing
Losses in multiple biological systems impact on functioning
Baltes argues that cognitive adaptation can limit these losses in function:
‘Selective optimisation with compensation’
Increased selectivity in the number of ‘high-efficiency domains’
Account for losses in reserve capacity through the development of compensatory mechanisms/strategies
What is old age?
65+ years of age
No clear chronological boundary, is considered a subjective state of mind
Successful social ageing
Successful ageing involves continued psychological growth and development
Being socially responsible and interested in others is important for ‘successful’ ageing (involves being compassionate, caring and responsive to others)
Capacity to accept change is also vital (too much of this may result in apathy, resignation, learned helplessness)
Disengagement theory
First proposed by Cumming and Henry (1961)
Healthy old age involves deliberately cutting off from other people, social roles and active concern for other
Controversial theory
Disengagement theory: three central defining components
- Disengagement is normative (do disengage)
- Disengagement is mutually desirable by old people and by society (want to disengage)
- Disengagement produces changes in thought patterns (need to disengage)
- Disengagement is normative (do disengage)
Old people voluntarily disengage from active social roles, severing emotional ties and moving out of career and leisure roles
- Disengagement is mutually desirable by old people and by society (want to disengage)
Disengagement is internal to the old person as part of normal and natural process of social ageing.
- Disengagement produces changes in thought patterns (need to disengage)
Individual’s inner dynamics, cognitions, emotions, and social thought patterns undergo changes.
As older people take less interest in social activities, their social skills diminish through disuse.
Critiquing disengagement theory
The process described by disengagement theory may not be restricted to effects of ageing
Same process of disengagement is seen in terminally ill patients and unemployed people
Criticised for condoning discrimination based on age (ageism)
Limited evidence of cross-cultural applicability
Activity theory
Continued socialisation, role commitment and involvement with people is important for successful ageing
If one role is lost, it requires replacement (new role should be equally socially demanding)
Social disengagement is an adverse response to ageism and social exclusion
