What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning results in a link forming between a behaviour and an event (like classical conditioning). But in the case of operant conditioning the behaviour is an act that the individual produces and the event is the consequence of that behaviour. The consequence can lead to an increase or decrease in the probability of the behaviour being repeated.
The Skinner box?
-Skinner (1948) carried out much of his research on animals using what is known as an operant chamber (Skinners box).
- The box contained food pellets that could be released as reinforcers when the animal learned to do something (e.g. operate a lever). Some operant chambers also contained electrified floors which could be used to punish behaviour.
-Using reinforcement and punishment, Skinner could train the animals to learn target behaviours.
Reinforcement
- Occurs when an event following a behaviour makes its reputation more likely.
- The ‘event’ is normally a pleasant experience, but anything that makes a behaviour more likely is reinforcement (so escaping from something unpleasant is also reinforcing).
-The event that leads to the increased likelihood of the behaviour being repeated is called a reinforcer.
-Positive reinforcement occurs when something pleasant follows a behaviour (e.g. something tangible like food or money, or something intangible but also nice like a smile or praise).
- Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant (e.g. pain) is removed following a behaviour. The consequence is desirable.
Primary and secondary reinforcement
- Primary reinforcers are rewarding because they have biological significance (e.g. food, drink , shelter, sex).
-Secondary reinforcers are powerful because they have become associated with primary reinforcers (e.g. money or an impressive job- money buys food, a cool job makes us sexually attractive).
Punishment
-Occurs when an event following a behaviour makes its repetition less likely.
- the event leading to the decreased likelihood is a punisher.
-Positive punishment occurs when something unpleasant or aversive is introduced following a behaviour (e.g. a slap).
-Negative punishment occurs when something nice is removed (e.g. being fined or grounded- removal of money or freedom)
-Some punishers are deliberately introduced to change someone’s behaviour (e.g. prison sentences to deprive people of freedom, labels such as ‘offender’ to remove social status.
-Other punishers are naturally occurring (e.g. first time we touch something hot we get burned so learn not to touch it again) - in operant conditioning terms the pain is just as much a punisher as something done deliberately to punish us
A strength of operant conditioning - is support from animal and human studies .
-Skinner (and others) have conducted hundreds of lab experiments showing operant conditioning in animals (with consistent findings about the ability to modify behaviour using reinforcement and punishment).
-In addition, modern brain studies have revealed Brain systems (neural correlates) that relate to reinforcement in humans. (chase et al. 2015).
- This means there is a firm evidence base supporting the existence of operant conditioning in both human and animal learning.
A weakness of operant conditioning- is an incomplete explanation
- Operant conditioning can explain a much wider range of behaviours than classical conditioning , (including complex chains of behaviour). But it is still incomplete as an explanation for the acquisition of all new behaviour.
-For example, it cannot account for the learning of new behaviours which the animal has never performed before.
-This shows that operant conditioning is only a partial explanation for learning of behaviour - It can only explain how existing behaviours are strengthened or weakened, not how they originate.
Application: Operant conditioning has been applied to education and childcare
-Systems of reinforcement are used in a range of places, including schools, nurseries and other settings involving children.
-For example, giving a child a star for good work encourages them to repeat their effort. Parents often use star charts or food treats to reinforce desirable behaviour.
-This shows that operant conditioning is of use in the real world as well as being of theoretical interest.
L&D extra : Operant conditioning lends itself to social control
-Reward and punishment are the major ways in which societies regulate the behaviour of their citizens.
- One of skinners aims was to use reinforcement effectively to create a society in which everyones behaviour was tightly controlled- this raises important issues of respect for individual liberty.
-This is important because as a society we place great value on individual freedoms.Operant conditioning is open to abuse because it is a powerful tool that can be subtly used to predetermine choices.
Competing Argument
Although operant conditioning techniques are open to abuse, a degree of social control is necessary for any large group of people to live together. An understanding of operant conditioning allows behaviour to be regulated using more reinforcers and less punishment.
